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in  2017  with  funding  from 
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A  MANUAL 


ON 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  SOUTH. 


PREPARED  EY 


C.  THURSTON  CHASE, 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  EDUCATION,  FLORIDA. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

18  6  8. 


I 


\ 


Washington,  D.  0.,  November  28,  1867. 

Dear  General:  I  have  the  honor  to  hand  you  herewith  the  manual,  pre¬ 
pared  at  your  request,  on  School-houses  and  Cottages  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
plain  people  in  the  South.  ♦  *■* 

Several  of  the  designs  were  originally  prepared  for  schools  in  operation  or 
organizing,  others  have  been  added,  with  such  modifications  as  to  make  them  of 
general  acceptance.  Those  for  the  simplest  structures  comprise  the  substantial 
advantages  of  much  more  costly*  buildings.  The  directions  accompanying 
are  sufficient  to  enable  the  ordinary  mechanic  to  erect  them  in  an  economjcal 
and  approved  manner.  Outline  plans  for  Wnion  or  Graded,  High,  and  Nor¬ 
mal  Schools  are  presented.  Bills  of  material  and  labor  are  given,  which  will 
aid  in  estimating  the  expense  before  the  work  is  commenced.  The  defects  of 
poor  buildings  ^d  bad  furniture,  the  evils  of  ill  ventilation,  imperfect  heating 
and  lighting  a?e  pointed  out  that  they  may  be  avoided,  and  the  means  by  which 
good  furniture,  pure  air,  an  equable  temperature,  and  a  mild  light  may  be 
secured  are  stated.  Hints  are  added  on  the  selection  of  sites,  improving  the 
grounds,  and  other  pertinent  subjects. 

It  is  proper  to  state  that  the  'small  apjftopriation  for  engraving  was  exhausted 
before  all  the  designs  for  school  buildings  were  completed.  Those  for  cottages 
were  generously  furnished  as  accredited.  The  space  allowed  for  this  portion  of 
the  work  is  relatively  small,  but  the  designs  are  good,  and,  if  followed,  will  aid 
in  overcoming  those  evils  to  which  you  referred  in  remarking  that  “no  people 
can  advance  far  in  civilization  where  it  is  the  practice  for  all  the  members  of  a 
family  to  live  in  one  room — there  to  cook,  eat,  sleep,  receive  company,  and  die.” 

The  work  is  plain,  concise,  and  explicit.  No  general  discussions  ol*principles 
are  introduced.  It  has  been  condensed  and  made  practical  that  it  may  be  the 
more  useful.  Trusting  that  it  will  meet  the  object  for  which  you  designed  it, 
and  do  good, 

I  have  the  honor,  general,  to  be  your  friend  aud  servant, 

C.  THURSTON  CH^SE, 
Superintendent  of  Education,  Florida. 

0.  0.  Howard, 

Major  General,  Commissioner . 


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INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 


War  Department, 

Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen,  and  Abandoned  Lands, 

Washington ,  January  28,  1868. 

The  following  work  is  a  little  more  extensive  than  I  had  intended. 
Its  object  is  to  furnish  to  freedmen  who  are  constructing  school-houses, 
cottages,  and  other  buildings,  simple  models,  at  as  cheap  a  rate  as 
possible,  and  with  sufficient  detail  to  enable  any  ordinary  mechanic  to 
do  the  work.  The  officers  and  agents  of  the  bureau  will  give  to  this 
pamphlet  as  wide  a  circulation  as  possible,  calling  to  it  the  special 
attention  of  all  who  may  be  interested  in  elevating  the  taste  of  the 
people.  It  is  just  as  easy  and  as  cheap  to  construct  a  neat  building 
as  it  is  to  put  up  an  awkward  and  ungainly  structure.  I  commend 
this  work  to  the  careful  perusal  of  all  teachers  and  patrons  of  schools, 
pastors  of  churches,  and  others  who  may  have  connection  with  public 
instruction  amongst  the  colored  people  of  the  southern  States. 

0.  0.  HOWARD, 

Major  General ,  Commissioner. 


Office  General  Superintendent  of  Schools, 

February  19,  1868. 

I  heartily  commend  this  manual  to  all  educational  societies,  school  boards, 
superintendents,  and  teachers,  who  contemplate  the  erection  of  school  buildings 
for  refugees  and  freedmen.  It  will  give  them,  substantially,  all  the  facts  they 
need  on  the  subject. 

J.  W.  ALVORD, 

Gen'l  Sujpt.  Schools,  Bureau  of  Refugees  and  Freedmen, 


CONTENTS. 


Paragraph. 

Air  in  its  pure  state .  15 

changes  in  its  component  parts .  16 

effect  of  combustion  and  respiration .  17 

its  relations  to  the  animal  economy .  18 

dry  and  overheated .  19 

contagion  communicated  in  ill  ventilated  rooms .  20 

report  to  New  York  City  Board  of  Education .  20 

cold  currents . 26 

cubic  feet  of  air  to  an  individual .  39 

Aisles,  their  use,  scale  of  widths .  9 

Ante-rooms .  13 

Ash-house . 89 

Assembly  hall  or  chapel . 62,  69 

entrance  to .  10 

Balloon  frame .  65 

Batten .  50 

Bell .  87 

Blackboards .  79 

kinds  of  wood  suitable  for .  80 

paint  for .  81 

plaster  wall .  82 

paper  surface .  83 

slate .  84 

rubber .  85 

preservation  of  blackboard  surface .  87 

Blinds,  their  use  in  ventilating .  23 

their  use  in  lighting .  31 

specifications  concerning  inside .  70 

Box  frame .  49 

Ceilings,  height  of .  40 

Chapel,  (see  Assembly  hall) . 

Common  schools,  their  benefits .  1,  111 

Cottages,  educational  influence  of  the  home .  98 

policy  of  the  American  government .  99 

site  for  a  dwelling .  100 

description  of  a  log  house  in  the  clearing .  101 

description  of  a  saddle-back  block-house .  102 

description  of  a  laborer’s  cottage .  103 

description  of  a  neat  cottage . 104 

description  of  a  snug  cottage . 105 

description  of  a  comfortable  cottage .  107 

description  of  a  gardener’s  cottage .  112 

description  of  a  mechanic’s  home . 108 

second  story,  full  height .  106 

papering  and  furnishing .  109 

color  of'cottages  and  school-houses .  110 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Paragraph. 


Cottages,  concrete  or  gravel  walls . Ill 

gables,  verge  boards,  hoods,  &c .  113 

Curtains .  32 

Desks  and  seats . 7,  8,  72 


their  imperfections . . . . . 

what  is  needed . 

improved  wooden,  their  construction . 

scale  of  measurement . . 

how  to  lay  off  a  room  for  the  desks . 

Drainage . 

Fan-lights . . . 

specifications  concerning . 

Fences . . 

Fire-place . 

Floors . . 

Furniture . . . . 

miscellaneous  articles  of . . 

Gates,  rustic . . 

Grounds,  improving  them . 

ornamental . 

Hall  wardrobes,  where  needed . 

their  construction . 

Hedges . 

Homes  for  plain  people . 

Hoods  for  doors  and  windows . 

Ink  wells . 

Light . . . 

how  regulated . . . 

Logs,  as  building  materials . 

Log-house  in  the  clearing . 

enlarged  and  improved . 

Log  school-house,  construction  of . 

Outbuildings . 

Piazza . 

Piers . 

Porch,  improved  style  of . 

Privies . 

Recitation  room . 

Roofs,  (see  Specifications) . 

Rustic  work,  useful  and  ornamental . 

Sash,  adjustment  in  ventilating  a  room . 

how  to  lower  the  upper . . 

School-houses,  construction  of. . , . 

common  defects  to  avoid . 

improvements,  how  brought  about . . 

requirements  of  better  buildings . . 

advantages  of  one-story  buildings . . 

how  to  plan . 

plans  of  one-story  buildings  to  accommodate  35,  42, 

pupils . 

description  of  log  school-house . 

description  of  plain  country  house . 

description  of  school-house  with  basement . 

description  of  village  school-house  for  128  pupils _ 


.  3 

.  7,  8 

.  73 

.  75 

.  74 

.  97 

.  30 

.  70 

.  93 

. . . .  28 

. .  70 

.  71 

. .  87 

.  1J6 

.  92 

. .  114 

.  17 

.  70 

.  115 

.  98 

.  113 

.  76 

.  31 

.  53 

.  47 

.  101 

.  102 

.  48 

.  89 

. 67,  69,  70 

.  53 

.  55 

.  91 

.  36 

.  117 

.  23 

.  33 

.  48 

.  2,  3 

.  4 

.  8 

.  44 

.  34 

48,  56,  and  64 

. 38  incl.  43 

.  47 

.  52 

.  55 

.  61 


CONTENTS. 


7 


Paragraph. 

School-houses,  description  of  school-house  with  chapel .  62 

description  of  building  for  Union  or  Graded  school,  224  pupils .  63 

description  of  building  for  High  school,  300  pupils .  66 

description  of  building  for  Normal  school  No.  1,  300  pupils .  67 

description  of  building  for  Normal  school  No.  2,  352  pupils .  69 

School-rooms,  units  of  measure  for  determining  size  of .  35 

number  of  teachers  to  one .  44 

square  feet  of  floor  surface  to  each  pupil  and  teacher .  47 

height  of  ceilings .  40 

Specifications  for  plain  country  school-house .  54 

school -house  with  basement .  56 

Normal  school  No.  1 .  68 

Normal  school  of  brick .  70 

Stoves .  29 

Teacher’s  room . 12 

furniture  for .  78 

tables . 77 

platform . • .  11 

Trees,  shade  and  ornamental .  96 

Venetian  blinds,  their  use  in  ventilating .  30 

their  use  in  regulating  the  admission  of  light .  32 

inside,  specifications  concerning .  70 

Ventilation .  21 

general  principles  governing .  22 

in  summer .  23 

in  winter . . .  24 

forced .  2^ 

diseases  generated  for  want  of .  21 

Walks .  95 

Warming .  27 

Windows .  41 

Wood-house .  89 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


pig. 

Vertical  section  of  school-house,  showing  air  currents .  1 

Plan  of  school-room  for  35  pupils  at  single  desks .  2 

Diagram  showing  plans  of  school-houses  for  42,  48,  56,  and  64  pupils,  &c .  3 

Design  for  a  log  school-house .  4 

Ground  plan  of  a  log  school-house .  5 

End  elevation  for  box-frame  building .  6 

Side  elevation  for  box-frame  building .  7 

Cross-section  of  abatteu .  8 

Design  for  a  rural  school-house .  9 

Design  for  an  improved  common  school  building .  JO 

Plan  of  school-house  for  84  pupils .  11 

Vaux’s  design  for  school-house .  12 

Plan  for  two  schools  combined.,  j . •  13 

Plan  for  village  school .  14 

Front  elevation  of  school .  15 

Side  elevation  of  school .  16 

Ground  plan  for  two-story  school  building .  17 

Plan  for  an  Assembly  hall  or  chapel .  18 

A  tower .  19 

Ground  plan  of  second  floor  for  Union  school .  20 

Balloon  frame,  a  side  elevation .  21 

Ground  plan  for  High  school .  22 

Ground  plan  for  Normal  school  No.  1 .  23 

Front  elevation  of  Normal  school  No.  1 .  24 

Side  elevation  of  Normal  school  No.  1 .  25 

Ground  plan  for  Normal  school  No.  2 .  26 

Side  elevation .  27 

Plan  of  chapel .  28 

Common  wooden  desks,  end  view .  29 

Improved  wooden  desks,  end  view .  30 

Connecting  bar . - .  31 

Top  of  desks  and  seats,  showing  their  forms,  &c .  32 

Ink  cup . 33 

Cover  for  ink-well .  34 

Improved  single  desk  and  chair .  35 

Improved  double  desk  and  chair .  36 

Teacher’s  table  No.  1 .  37 

Teacher’s  table  No.  2 .  38 

Teacher's  table  No.  3 .  39 

Book-case .  40 

Design  for  a  log  house . ■- .  41 

Plan  of  a  log  house .  42 

Design  for  a  saddle-back  log  house .  43 

Plan  of  a  saddle-back  log  house .  44 

Design  for  a  laborer’s  cottage . .  .  . .  45 

End  elevation .  46 

Ground  plan . 47 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


9 


Fig. 

Design  for  a  neat  cottage .  48 

Ground  plan . ,, .  49 

Attic  plan .  50 

A  window  hood .  51 

Design  for  a  snug  cottage .  52 

Ground  plan .  53 

Plan  of  second  story .  54 

Rearrangement  of  rooms .  55 

Design  for  a  comfortable  cottage .  56 

Ground  plan .  57 

Second  story .  58 

Design  for  a  mechanic’s  home .  59 

Plan  of  principal  floor .  60 

Plan  of  chambers .  61 

Design  for  a  gardener’s  cottage .  62 

Ground  plan .  63 

Plan  of  second  story .  64 

Design  for  a  stone  window  hood .  65 

Design  for  a  hipped  gable .  66 

Design  for  a  verge  board  and  finial  No.  1 .  67 

Design  for  a  verge  board  and  finial  No.  2 .  68 

Design  for  a  hooded  door .  69 

Design  for  a  hooded  window .  70 

Design  for  laying  out  grounds  . .  71 

Design  for  rustic  gate  No.  1 .  72 

Design  for  rustic  gate  No.  2 .  73 

Design  for  rustic  gate  with  roof .  74 


' 


- 


MANUAL 


ON 

SCHOOL-IIOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 

FOR  THE 

PEOPLE  OF  THE  SOUTH. 


THE  COMMON  SCHOOL. 

1.  The  Common  School  is  the  poor  man's  best  friend.  Ignorance  is  his  ruin, 
heming  him  in  on  every  side  to  a  narrow  and  ignoble  sphere.  The  school  spans 
the  gorge  and  makes  its  passage  easy.  The  parent,  indeed,  may  never  be  able 
to  cross  it,  but  his  children  can  pass  over  from  their  abodes  of  poverty  and  igno¬ 
rance  and  attain  the  prizes  of  wealth,  usefulness,  honor,  and  power  among  the 
first  and  the  best. 

The  State  which  is  well  supplied  with  good  teachers  is  sure  to  be  well  governed. 
There,  property  is  safe  and  the  person  is  secure.  Schools  are  our  best  “  peace 
establishment.”  In  them  Liberty  intrenches  herself.  In  war  time  they  are  the 
pledges  of  national  strength  and  endurance.  They  are  the  handmaids  of  Virtue. 
They  prepare  the  way  for  Christianity  to  go  down  among  the  vicious  and  depraved 
and  draw  them  out  of  their  misery  and  crimes  to  higher  planes,  where  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  all  things  noble,  pure,  and  true  are  possible. 

Washington  foresaw  that  “  the  perpetuity  of  our  republican  institutions  de¬ 
pends  upon  the  intelligence  and  virtue  of  the  people.”  With  that  view  his 
parting  admonition  counselled  us  to  “  promote,  as  an  object  of  primary  import¬ 
ance,  institutions  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  for  “  in  proportion 
as  the  structure  of  a  government  gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential 
that  public  opinion  should  be  enlightened.” 

Do  not  the  events  of  our  history  point  to  universal  education  as  the  means  on 
which  all  patriots  may  unite  to  make  the  nation  a  unit  in  sentiment,  spirit,  and 
power  ? 

DEFECTS  IN  SCHOOL 

2.  According  to  the  reports  of  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction  in  the 
different  States,  millions  of  dollars  have  been  unwisely  expended  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  school-houses.  The  cause  assigned  was  a  waut  of  knowledge  as 
to  what  a  good  edifice  for  this  purpose  should  be,  and  to  the  absence  of  correct 
models  to  copy  after. 

The  earlier  school-houses  were  exceedingly  rude  and  unsuitable.  When  private 
residences  and  other  public  buildings  were  improved,  they  still  were  neglected. 
For  a  long  time  the  people,  seemed  too  much  absorbed  in  subduing  forests,  build¬ 
ing  cities,  and  founding  States  to  give  educational  interests  their  needed  atten¬ 
tion.  For  years  after  public  school  systems  had  been  established  the  observing 
traveller  could  mark  the  district  school-houses  by  their  desolate,  lonely,  uncared- 
for  aspect.  They  were  too  frequently  located  on  some  barren  and  treeless  hill¬ 
side,  where  the  hot  suns  of  summer  pelted  down  upon  them,  and  the  cold  winds 
of  winter  had  unbroken  sweep  ;  or  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land  at  the  junction  of 
highways,  where  the  dust  was  sure  to  blow  into  the  house  from  one  or  the  other 


12 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


road  ;  or  by  canals  and  railroads,  in  the  neighborhood  of  factories,  or  the  busiest 
portions  of  villages,  where  study  would  be  interrupted  and  the  persons  and 
morals  of  the  children  endangered.  Broken  windows,  swinging  weather-boards, 
leaky  roofs  were  noticeable  from  without.  Inside  were  filthy  floors,  smoked 
ceilings  and  walls  defaced  with  obscene  images.  The  furniture  was  of  the  most 
primitive  kind  and  constructed  with  little  or  no  reference  to  the  comfort  of  those 
who  were  to  use  it.  Appliances  promotive  of  order  and  cleanliness  were  neg¬ 
lected.  Hats  and  clothing  were  thrown  on  the  floor  or  tossed  over  the  benches. 
If  there  was  a  privy,  it  was  a  den  of  loathsomeness.  Altogether,  the  common 
school  seemed  to  be  a  place  which  had  few  attractions,  but  much  that  was  offen¬ 
sive  and  repulsive. 

•3.  In  the  rural  districts  of  the  South  many  school-houses  are  as  yet  but  little 
better  than  log  huts  in  the  clearing,  or  deserted  negro  quarters  in  the  old  field. 
Gin  houses,  outbuildings,  workshops,  hospital  barracks,  abandoned  town  halls, 
and  churches  are  very  extensively  used  for  “  temples  of  knowledge.”  They 
are  generally  without  lathing  and  plastering,  destitute  of  suitable  warming  fix¬ 
tures,  and  devoid  of  well  regulated  ventilation.  Some  have  too  much  light  ; 
others  no  windows  at  all.  The  openings  for  windows  may  have  board  shutters, 
on  closing  which  to  keep  out  storms,  the  school  is  driven  into  the  street.  Very 
few  have  good  desks.  The  benches  are  commonly  without  backs,  and  often  so 
high  that  the  children,  when  writing,  lay  their  books  upon  them,  while  they  kneel 
upon  the  floor.  It  is  needless  to  mention  the  absence  of  books,  blackboards, 
apparatus,  and  outbuildings.  Some  school-houses  are  located  in  marshy  places, 
half  surrounded  by  water,  or  in  districts  notoriously  subject  to  tbe  visitation  of 
epidemics  and  fertile  in  miasma  which  causes  chills  and  fever.  In  buildings  of 
recent  construction  improvements  have  been  introduced,  but  there  is  still  a  want 
of  full  and  practical  directions. 

4.  When  public  attention  was  first  called  to  the  importance  of  this  matter, 
twenty-five  years  ago,  by  Maun,  Barnard,  Page,  and  others,  resort  was  had  to 
publications  containing  the  needed  information.  Every  school  district  in  several 
of  the  States  was  supplied  with  a  copy  of  such  works  as  Barnard’s  School 
Architecture  and  Pennsylvania  Common  Schools.  They  were  extensively  cir¬ 
culated  in  other  States.  The  effect  produced  by  the  dissemination  of  this  in¬ 
formation  among  the  people  was  all  that  could  have  been  desired.  The  uncouth 
devices  of  the  past  were  ignored  ;  new  buildings  were  erected,  combining  all 
the  merits  which  skill  and  liberality  could  provide.  The  locations  were  more 
fitly  chosen,  shade  trees  were  planted,  and  suitable  outbuildings  were  erected. 
Better  teachers  were  employed  and  higher  salaries  paid.  When  the  school- 
houses  were  improved  the  best  talent  of  the  communities  was  enlisted  in  the 
administration  of  educational  affairs.  Union  or  graded  schools  were  established 
in  villages  and  cities  and  in  thickly  populated  rural  districts.  Experience  added 
to  knowledge.  Thorough  and  complete  systems  of  public  instruction  have 
been  entered  upon,  and  the  standard  of  excellence  steadily  advanced,  until  the 
free  schools  have  generally  superseded  those  conducted  under  private  auspices. 

Notwithstanding  the  rapid  progress  of  our  country  in  material  greatness,  the 
improvement  of  our  common  schools  has  reached  that  high  degree  of  excellence 
and  contributed  so  largely  to  the  promotion  of  the  general  good  that  we  now 
point  to  them  with  an  honest  pride  as  the  chiefest  jewels  we  possess.  There 
the  child  of  the  humblest  laborer  is  privileged  alike  with  the  son  of  the  most 
favored  and  wealthy  citizen.  They  strive  in  honorable  rivalry  in  youth,  and 
enter  the  lists  at  maturity  side  by  side.  Through  the  blessings  of  the  common 
school  the  State  is  honored  and  strengthened  by  the  best  talents  of  all  its  citizens. 

Is  not  the  course  plain  for  those  States  where  the  common  school  systems 
have  not  yet  received  legal  sanction  ?  May  they  not,  by  taking  counsel  of  the 
experience  elsewhere  attained,  speedily  gain  rank  for  their  institutions  of  learn¬ 
ing  among  the  first  in  the  laud  ? 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


13 


THE  SITE.— WHAT  IT  SHOUT©  COMBINE. 

5.  The  officers,  whether  of  a  regularly  organized  school  district  or  its  near 
equivalent,  a  school  society,  will  have  the  selecting  of  the  location  for  the  school 
building.  It  is  their  duty  to  provide  for  the  largest  convenience  of  the  children 
who  are  to  attend.  The  points  to  be  regarded  are  that  it  shall  be  central  yet 
retired,  healthful,  pleasant,  and  spacious.  A  few  reasons  may  be  added.  It 
should  he — 

Central,  so  that  the  greatest  number  may  be  accommodated.  This  need  not 
necessarily  be  at  the  geographical  centre,  but  at  the  point  most  accessible  for  all 
by  the  roads  and  paths  leading  to  it. 

Retired  from  the  stir  of  business,  the  dust  and  confusion  of  thronged  roads 
or  streets,  away  from  the  screaming  of  engine  whistles  and  the  roaring  of  rail¬ 
way  trains.  This  precaution  is  needful  for  the  quiet  of  study  hours  and  the 
safety  of  the  children  out  of  school. 

Healthful,  that  personal  vigor  and  beauty  may  be  promoted  and  the  capacity 
for  improvement  quickened.  The  neighborhood  of  marshes  and  sluggish  streams 
is  to  be  avoided.  Also,  proximity  to  stables,  slaughter-houses,  gas-works,  and 
all  manufacturing  establishments  from  which  offensive  odors  are  emitted. 

Pleasant,  embracing,  if  possible,  the  range  of  a  fine  landscape  view,  with 
farms  and  cottages  near  at  hand ;  villages,  rivers,  lakes,  and  mountains  more 
remote. 

Spacious,  giving  an  abundance  of  room  for  a  well,  outbuildings,  play-grounds, 
separate  back  yards  for  the  boys  and  girls  ;  and  in  front,  room  for  shade  and 
ornamental  trees,  shrubbery  and  flowers. 

These  accommodations  will  require  at  least  one  acre  of  ground.  In  locating 
the  building  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  place  it  a  little  in  front  of  the  centre 
of  the  lot  yet  not  directly  on  the  street,  nor  too  near  the  highway. 

The  selection  of  a  good  site  is  of  such  high  import  that  in  several  States  laws 
have  been  enacted  clothing  proper  civil  officers  with  power  to  determine  on  the 
location  and  appraise  its  value  after  ordinary  negotiations  have  failed. 

THE  WANTS  C6F  THE  SCHOOE-HOUSE. 

6.  The  building  should  be  fitted  for  the  school  on  the  same  principle  that 
a  dwelling  is  made  for  the  family,  a  storehouse  for  its  merchandise,  or  a  church 
for  devotional  exercises.  Buildings  erected  for  other  purposes  are  seldom  of 
the  right  size  or  form  for  schools.  The  health  and  comfort  of  the  children 
while  at  school  are  not  to  be  disregarded.  All  their  future  will  be  affected  by 
the  impressions  they  receive  and  the  habits  they  contract  at  school.  They  will 
reach  maturity  with  more  or  less  vigor  of  physical  constitution,  and  make  better 
or  worse  citizens  according  to  the  influences  there  exerted  upon  them. 

Nor  are  the  wants  of  the  teachers  to  be  overlooked.  There  is  no  position 
more  arduous,  none  requiring  greater  tact  and  skill,  and  certainly  none  more 
honorable  and  useful.  Every  aid  should  be  extended,  and  every  appliance  pro¬ 
vided  which  will  heighten  the  effect  of  judicious  teaching  and  at  the  same  time 
diminish,  as  far  as  may  be,  the  arduous  labors  and  petty  annoyances  incident  to 
the  work.  Not  only  is  an  airy  and  commodious  room  required,  but  one  that 
shall  be  suited  to  the  size  of  the  school.  A  large  open  hall  for  a  small  school 
is  cheerless  as  a  barn,  while  a  small  one,  overcrowded,  is  always  uncomfortable 
and  becomes  infectious  of  disease.  Good  school-houses  attract  good  teachers; 
poor  ones  repel  them  and  bring  education  into  disrepute. 

The  essential  requisites  of  a  school-house  are  briefly  these : 

1.  A  desk  and  seat  for  each  pupil. 

2.  Aisles. 

3.  A  teacher’s  platform. 


14 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


4.  A  teacher’s  room. 

5.  Separate  ante-rooms  for  the  boys  and  girls. 

6.  Arrangements  for  warming,  ventilating,  and  lighting. 

Extensive  rows  of  backless  benches  have  long  since  been  discarded.  As  soon 
as  a  child  begins  to  write  on  a  slate  he  needs  a  desk  to  lay  the  slate  npon.  If 
allowed  or  required  to  rest  the  slate  or  book  upon  his  knee  a  habit  of  stooping 
is  acquired  which  leads  to  bodily  deformity  and  organic  disease.  There  are  two 
styles  of  desks  in  use — the  single  and  the  double. 

7.  Single  Desks. — It  is  better  for  each  pupil  to  be  seated  at  a  desk  by  him¬ 
self.  The  younger  and  less  accustomed  to  discipline  the  greater  is  this  want. 
The  size  of  a  single  desk  with  seat  is  two  feet  in  front  by  two  and  a  half  in  rear. 
Although  it  occupies  but  nine  square  feet  on  the  floor,  yet,  with  the  space  occu¬ 
pied  for  aisles,  the  platform,  &c.,  each  desk  requires  an  average  floor  surface  of 
twenty  square  feet.  Rooms  intended  exclusively  for  small  children  may  be 
made  smaller  on  the  ground,  but  should  not  be  less  in  height  of  ceiling.  Indeed, 
the  height  of  the  room  should  be  greater,  on  account  of  the  greater  activity  of 
the  lungs  of  children  in  consuming  the  air. 

The  method  of  arranging  them  and  the  aisles  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  2.  Each 
pupil  is  separated  from  every  other  one.  It  leaves  him  less  exposed  to  tempta¬ 
tions  to  disorder,  and  relieves  the  teacher  of  the  severest  part  of  that  exacting 
care  which  exhausts  the  strength  and  wastes  the  nervous  energies  of  the  stoutest 
constitutions. 

The  objections  to  single  desks  are  wholly  on  the  score  of  expense.  Their 
first  cost  is  greater.  The  school-room,  to  accommodate  a  given  number  of  pu¬ 
pils  at  single  desks,  must  be  about  one-flfth  larger  than  for  double  desks.  This 
is  shown  by  reference  to  Figures  2  and  3. 

8.  Double  Desks  vary  in  length  from  three  and  aihalf  to  four  feet.  In  width 
they  correspond  to  single  desks.  A  desk  and  seat  for  two  adults  would  occupy 
just  twice  that  required  in  a  single  desk;  but  there  are  fewer  aisles  in  a  school¬ 
room  seated  in  this  way,  so  that  the  average  space  on  the  floor  is  less,  vary¬ 
ing  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  according  to  the  width  of  aisles.  Figure  3  shows 
the  arrangement  of  double  desks  in  a  room.  The  construction  of  desks  is  dis¬ 
cussed  under  72. 

9.  Aisles  are  primarily  for  the  convenience  of  the  pupils  in  going  to  and  from 
their  seats.  The  outside  aisles  are  the  principal  passage  ways;  they  are  also 
used  for  classes  to  stand  in  during  recitations  and  exercises  at  the  blackboards. 
The  usual  width  of  the  inside  aisles  is,  between  single  desks,  eighteen  inches  ; 
double  desks,  twenty-four  inches  ;  the  outside  aisles,  three  and  a  half  feet.  In 
the  plans  given  tiie  front  and  rear  aisles  are  set  down  at  three  feet,  but  there 
will  be  some  gain  in  seating  from  the  fact  that  the  smaller  desks  take  up  less 
room  than  has  been  allowed  for  them.  This  will  gain  enough  to  make  both  the 
end  aisles  three  and  a  half  feet  wide,  or  the  one  next  the  platform  four  feet. 

scale  of  widths  of  aisles. 

Inside.  Front  end.  Back  end.  Side. 

For  single  desks. ...  16  to  20  inches.  3  to  5  feet.  2h  to  3  feet.  3  to  4  feet. 
For  double  desks.  ..22  to  26  inches.  3  to  5  feet.  2%  to  3i  feet.  3  to  4  feet. 

In  large  rooms,  for  sixty  or  more  pupils,  the  centre  aisle  is  sometimes  made 
a  foot  wider  than  the  other  inside  ones.  The  side  aisles  of  chapels  and  assem¬ 
bly  halls  should  be  about  three  feet  wide;  the  centre  aisle  four  feet.  The  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  aisles  mayT  properly  have  an  influence  in  determining  the  position  of 
the  doors. 

10.  The  entrances  to  a  school-room  should  be  facing  the  school  and  at  the 
side  of  the  teacher’s  platform.  To  an  assembly  hall,  chapel,  &c.,  they  should 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


15 


be  at  tbe  back  or  opposite  end,  so  that  persons  coming  in  would  not  face  the 
audience. 

11.  The  Platform. — A  liberal  provision  for  tbe  teacher’s  wants  shows  an 
appreciation  which  can  be  manifested  in  no  other  way  so  acceptably.  Although 
the  teacher  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  part  of  the  room,  yet  custom  and 
convenience  have  indicated  a  situation  in  front  of  the  school,  from  which  the  at¬ 
tention  of  every  pupil  may  be  instantly  commanded,  the  signals  of  order  an¬ 
nounced,  and  general  and  special  exercises  conducted.  A  platform  about  five 
feet  by  six,  or  six  feet  square,  with  a  table  on  the  front,  has  been  generally 
adopted.  The  doors  through  which  the  children  find  entrance  and  egress  are 
situated  at  either  side  of  the  platform.  This  enables  the  teacher  to  keep  them 
completely  in  order  at  the  times  when  disorder  is  most  likely  to  arise.  It  is 
customary  to  raise  the  platform  to  the  height  of  one  or  two  steps — say  six  to 
twelve  inches.  In  large  rooms  the  size  of  the  platform  is  increased.  In  assem¬ 
bly  halls  it  may  be  ten  feet  wide  by  eighteen  long,  elevated  three  feet  above  the 
floor.  This  will  afford  room  for  the  seating  of  guests  on  public  occasions’,  and 
admit  of  arrangements  for  musical  entertainments,  exhibitions,  and  the  like. 

Of  the  smaller  platforms  it  may  be  remarked  that  their  width  must  be  suffi¬ 
cient  for  a  desk  or  table  in  front  of  the  teacher,  two  feet  or  two  and  a  half  wide, 
for  the  chair  which  the  teacher  occupies,  and  space  behind  the  chair  to  move  it 
back  on  rising. 

12.  A  Teacher’s  Room  is  much  needed  for  the  safe  keeping  of  maps,  charts, 
books,  &c.,  as  a  place  for  retirement  and  for  consultation  with  parents  or  trustees 
who  may  call  on  business  connected  with  the  school.  Here,  too,  the  teacher 
may  adjust  the  minor  difficulties  in  a  quiet  way,  by  kindly  words  of  admonition, 
which  go  further  in  correcting  the  errors  of  hasty  youth  than  sternness  and 
severity.  Its  size  may  be  from  six  or  eight  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet  square.  In 
the  larger  schools  it  should  be  about  fifteen  by  twenty  feet.  It  may  then  be 
used  for  a  recitation  room.  (Sec  78.) 

13.  Ante-rooms. — To  prevent  the  slovenly  and  wasteful  practice  of  throwing 
the  laid-off  clothing  on  the  floor,  or  across  the  benches  and  desk,  a  room  should 
be  provided  between  the  school-room  door  and  the  outer  entrance  to  the  build¬ 
ing — one  for  the  boys,  another  for  the  girls — in  which  they  may  leave  whatever 
does  not  pertain  to  the  school  exercises.  When  there  is  but  one  entrance  and, 
at  the  announcement  of  school,  all  the  children  rush  headlong  for  this  door,  con¬ 
fusion  and  discord  ensue.  That  may  be  prevented  by  having  separate  entries. 
They  should  be  large  enough  for  shelves  and  hooks  for  the  reception  of  hats, 
cloaks  and  “  dinner  things.”  They  are  to  be  divided  and  the  divisions  num¬ 
bered  corresponding  to  the  numbers  of  the  pupils’  desks. 

14.  Hall  Wardrobes  may  be  provided  in  large  buildings  where  separate 
ante-rooms  have  not  been  arranged,  (j[  70.)  The  same  plan  of  numbering  is  then  to 
be  used  as  above,  and  the  articles  to  be  handed  out  as  the  pupils  leave  the  room. 
The  wardrobes  are  locked  and  the  teacher  keeps  the  key  at  other  times. 

AIK. 

15.  The  condition  of  the  atmosphere  we  breathe  has  a  much  greater  influence 
upon  the  health  of  the  body  and  the  strength,  vigor,  and  activity  of  the  brain 
than  is  commonly  understood.  The  external  air,*  as  it  comes  to  us  from  the 
forests,  the  field,  the  mountains,  and  the  ocean,  is,  as  a  general  rule,  in  the  highest 
degree  promotive  of  health.  When  noxious  vapors  are  infused  into  it  they  are 
neutralized  by  frosts,  or  being  borne  on  the  winds  are  absorbed  by  large  bodies 
of  water,  and  by  the  countless  leaves  of  living  plants.  Animals,  by  breathing, 


*  The  atmosphere,  according  to  Brande,  contains,  by  weight :  nitrogen,  75  55  parts  ;  oxy¬ 
gen,  23.32;  aqueous  vapors,  1.03;  carbonic  acid  gas,  .10. 


16 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


consume  the  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  acid  gas.  Plants,  in  turn,  absorb  the 
carbonic  acid  and  exhale  oxygen. 

16.  Any  material  change  in  the  component  parts  of  the  atmosphere  produces 
very  remarkable  consequences.  Thus,  if  its  oxygen  be  increased,  a  flame  burns 
more  intensely,  animal  life  is  stimulated  and  shortened  by  over-action.  If 
diminished,  a  flame  burns  more  dimly  and  at  length  is  extinguished  ;  the  indi¬ 
vidual  breathing  it  experiences  a  sense  of  languor  and  weariness;  a  considerable 
reduction  eventuates  in  death.  Let  the  trace  of  carbonic  acid  be  increased  to 
one  per  cent.,  in  consequence  the  brilliancy  of  a  flame  is  diminished ;  a  stupor 
comes  over  the  individual  inhaling  it  and  a  sensation  is  felt  in  the  brain  as  though 
a  band  were  drawn  tightly  around  the  head.  At  four  per  cent.,  it  extinguishes 
combustion  and  endangers  life.  At  ten  or  twelve  per  cent.,  it  causes  speedy 
death. 

17.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  six  candles  weighing  a  pound 
consume,  in  burning,  all  the  oxygen  from  twenty  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour.  A 
large  kerosine  burner  produces  a  like  effect  on  twenty- five  cubic  feet  of  air  in 
the  same  time.  A  cubic  foot  cf  coal  gas  consumes,  in  burning,  twice  that 
amount  of  oxygen.  A  fire  for  heating  a  room  produces  similar  results,  and  on 
a  larger  scale  in  proportion  to  the  flame. 

A  man  of  medium  stature,  the  capacity  of  whose  lungs  is  about  two  hundred 
cubic  inches,  exhausts  all  the  oxygen  from  twenty  cubic  inches  of  air  at  each 
respiration,  and  imparts  four  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  the 
expired  breath.  The  blood  at  once  absorbs  the  oxygen  aud  is  vitalized  by  it, 
while  it  rejects  the  effete  or  used-up  matter  which  it  has  gathered  in  its  circula¬ 
tion  through  the  system,  and  returns  again  through  the  arteries  to  infuse  new 
life  to  every  part  and  to  receive  anew  the  waste  material  which  is  no  longer 
needed,  but  which  the  system  cannot  retain  without  experiencing  serious  organic 
derangement.  When  no  provision  is  made  for  the  escape  of  the  impure  air  from 
a  room  it  is  resorbed  by  the  lungs  of  those  in  it  aud  contaminates  the  blood  with 
which  it  comes  in  close  contact. 

The  weight  of  the  exhalations  from  the  lungs  and  pores  of  the  skin,  by  a 
school  of  forty-eight  pupils,  during  the  six  school  hours  of  a  day  is  set  down  at 
two  pounds,  and  that  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  brought  into  the  air  by  the  re¬ 
turned  breath  amounts  to  sixteen  pounds  per  hour.  Filthy  floors  and  untidy 
clothes  greatly  increase  these  evils.  We  now  pass  to  consider  briefly  the  effect 
of  these  changes  upon  the  animal  economy. 

18.  It  is  well  known  that  the  activity  of  any  particular  member  of  the  body 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  oxygen  which  is  communicated  to  it.  The  black¬ 
smith’s  arm,  by  increased  labor,  claims  and  receives  an  increased  supply  of  blood 
and  of  oxygen  from  it.  But  let  the  needed  flow  be  diminished,  the  arm  shrivels, 
its  muscular  power  is  lost.  A  total  suppression  paralyzes  it  altogether.  The 
brain,  weighing  only  one-sixteenth  of  the  whole  body,  consumes,  by  its  cease¬ 
less  activity,  one-sixth  of  all  the  blood  thrown  out  by  the  heart.  A  suppression 
of  the  arterial  current  to  the  brain  causes  stupor  and  dizziness,  followed  by 
fainting  and  finally  death. 

A  simple  experiment  will  illustrate  the  fact.  Place  any  small  animal,  as  a 
mouse,  under  a  glass  jar  from  which  the  air  is  excluded.  Soon  its  breathing 
becomes  perceptibly  labored,  growing  more  and  more  difficult,  until  he  drops 
down  in  a  stupor  and  presently  dies.  If  a  caudle  were  inserted  instead  of  the 
mouse  the  flame  would,  in  a  short  time,  burn  dimly  and  continue  diminishing  in 
brilliancy  until  it  is  extinguished.  The  air  iu  the  jar  is  now  in  such  condition 
as  to  produce  death  to  animal  life  immediately  or  extinguish  flame  at  once.  But 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  jar  had  been  filled  with  pure  oxygen,  the  results  in 
both  cases  would  have  been  directly  the  reverse. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


17 


The  purity  of  the  atmosphere  breathed  by  persons  engaged  in  outdoor  em¬ 
ployment  is  one  chief  cause  of  their  enjoying  better  health  and  greater  cheer¬ 
fulness  of  spirits  than  those  confined  to  sedentary  employments.  It  is  a  common 
remark  that  puny  clerks  and  delicate  craftsmen  become,  as  soldiers  or  engineers, 
robust,  hardy  men. 

19.  When  the  atmosphere  is  highly  charged  with  heat  it  is  liable  to  be  less 
vitalizing  than  before  its  temperature  Avas  raised,  and  from  two  causes.  First, 
on  being  heated  it  becomes  rarer  or  thinner,  the  lungs  by  a  given  expansion 
inhale  less  oxygen  than  when  the  air  was  cooler  and  denser.  Second,  the  health  - 
fulness  of  the  air  is  impaired  by  heat,  unless  at  the  same  time  the  watery  vapor 
which  it  contains  is  increased.  Air,  saturated  with  moisture  at  a  temperature 
of  thirty-two  degrees,  becomes  insufferably  parching  to  the  lungs  and  skin  when 
heated  to  seventy  five  degrees  without  an  addition  of  moisture.  About  three 
hundred  per  cent,  more  is  required  at  the  latter  than  the  former  temperature. 

20.  The  nature  of  the  refuse  matter  thrown  off  by  the  lungs  and  pores  of  the 
skin  demands  further  consideration.  Chemical  analysis  has  failed  to  define, 
satisfactorily,  the  character  of  these  bodily  exhalations.  They  contain  prop¬ 
erties,  so  subtile  as  to  elude  detection,  which  are  fraught  with  the  most  painful 
consequences  to  those  who  are  exposed  to  their  contact.  Some  idea  of  their 
nature  may  be  formed  by  placing  a  sponge,  saturated  with  Avater,  in  the  venti¬ 
lator  of  a  crowded  hall  to  receive  the  escaping  current.  The  fetid  air  of  the 
room  imparts  an  offensive  odor  to  the  sponge  and  the  water  eAren  becomes  putres¬ 
cent.  It  is  a  Avell  established  fact  that  a  person  afflicted  Avith  an  infectious 
disease  so  charges  the  atmosphere  of  a  large  assembly  hall  Avith  a  subtile  con¬ 
tagion  that  any  person  breathing  the  air  may  be  contaminated. 

What  parent,  teacher,  or  school  officers,  who  regard  the  well  being  of  the  youth 
committed  to  their  charge,  can  longer  remain  indifferent,  on  a  candid  considera¬ 
tion  of  the  facts  adduced  ?  The  report  of  a  committee  appointed  hy  the  NeAv 
York  city  Board  of  Education,  in  commenting  on  the  dangers  to  the  pupils  breath¬ 
ing  an  atmosphere  which  has  been  thus  corrupted,  says :  “The  rottenness  of 
the  air  is  communicated  to  the  lungs,  and  lung  diseases  are  generated.  The 
enormous  mortality  from  lung  diseases,  averaging  a  hundred  and  ninety  deaths 
per  Aveek,  is  in  a  great  part  attributable  to  the  foul  air  breathed  every  day  by 
the  60.000  children  in  the  schools.  The  prevalency  of  scarlet  fever,  which  for 
the  past  few  years  has  been  remarkably  great  in  the  primary  schools,  may  be 
attributed  to  the  same  cause  in  even  a  greater  degree.” 

YITYTR  LATIOY. 

21.  The  remedies  for  these  evils  are  simple.  They  lie  wholly  within  the 
reach  of  those  who  have  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  school  buildings  and 
the  management  of  the  schools.  In  the  first  place,  the  causes  which  render  the 
air  impure  should  be  abated  as  far  as  possible.  When  the  air  becomes  impure 
it  should  be  driven  out  and  pure  air  supplied  in  its  place,  or,  more  definitely — 

1.  1  he  floors,  walls,  and  furniture  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean. 

2.  Personal  cleanliness  of  the  pupils  should  be  enforced. 

3-  In  constructing  the  building  provision  should  be  made  for  expelling  the 
vitiated  atmosphere  as  fast  as  it  becomes  impure. 

4.  At  the  same  time  arrangements  should  be  made  for  admitting  pure,  fresh 
air  from  without. 

1  his  is  simply  driving  out  our  enemies  and  entertaining  our  friends. 

A  room  to  be  healthful  should  contain  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  eighty 
cubic  feet  of  atmosphere  to  each  person  in  it.  And  this  entire  volume  should  be 
changed  every  hour. 

22.  I  his  can  easily  be  done  by  availing  ourselves  of  the  fact  that,  Avlien  the 
2  s  c 


18 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


temperature  of  any  portion  of  the  atmosphere 
is  raised  three  or  four  degrees  higher  than  that 
with  which  it  is  in  communication,  it  imme¬ 
diately  ascends.  The  expelled  breath,  being 
warmer  and  lighter,  rises  to  the  upper  regions 
of  the  room,  carrying  with  it  the  waste  mate¬ 
rial  from  the  lungs.  It  needs  no  argument  to 
show  that  if  this  can  be  allowed  to  pass  off, 
the  purity  of  the  air  will  be  maintained  much 
longer  than  if  confined. 

23.  Summer  Ventilation.  To  show  the 
practical  working  of  what  is  termed  ventila¬ 
tion,  or  the  controlling  of  air  currents,  let  us 
suppose  all  the  openings,  as  shown  in  the  fig¬ 
ure,  are  closed,  except  those  under  the  sashes 

.  .  .  at  A  and  B.  As  the  cool  air  comes  in  at  these 

Fiv.  1.  vertical  section  ot  school-  „  ,  . n  n  ,  , 

house,  showing  air  currents.  fl'nm  outside  it  drops  to  the  floor,  as  shown  by 

the  dotted  lines  and  arrows.  The  warm  air  of 
the  room  which  lies  below  the  level  of  A  and  B  can  at  the  same  time  escape ; 
but  that  which  is  above  it  cannot.  The  colder  and  heavier  air  below  buoys  it 
up.  By  contact  with  the  fresh  air  a  portion  of  it  becomes  cooled,  descends,  and 
passes  out  at  the  openings.  Now  lower  the  upper  sashes.  The  air  in  this  region 
of  the  room  will  pass  out  at  the  openings  0  and  D,  as  represented,  both  from 
below  and,  on  account  of  general  movement  of  the  air,  from  above.  The  change 
is  rapid,  and  the  result  invigorating  to  the  inmates. 

In  mild,  pleasant  weather  lowering  the  upper  sashes  will  ventilate  the  room 
sufficiently.  But  when  storms  and  high  winds  prevail  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  windows  closed.  To  meet  this  emergency  let  there  be  an  opening  in  the 
ceiling  at  E,  two  or  three  feet  square,  closed  by  a  fan-door  hung  on  pivots. 
Place  a  Venetian  blind,  with  broad  slats,  in  the  gable  at  F  ;  or,  if  you  prefer  it, 
a  fan-door  instead  of  the  blind.  Let  both  the  fan-doors  be  controlled  by  cords, 
which  come  down  within  reach  in  the  room,  to  be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure. 
Suppose  they  are  open  and  the  sashes  closed.  The  general  direction  of  the 
warmer  air  is  represented  by  the  lines  tending  towards  F  and  F.  When  storms 
occur  the  windows  may  be  opened  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  from  the 
direction  of  the  wind  to  admit  a  fresh  supply  of  the  external  atmosphere. 

This  very  simple  mode  of  accomplishing  our  object  has  the  further  recom¬ 
mendation  of  being  easily  and  cheaply  constructed.  It  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
provide  the  one  opening  at  E  and  allow  the  bad  air  to  accumulate  in  the  loft. 
There  should  not  only  be  an  opening  in  one,  but  in  both  gables  to  allow  the  air 
from  below  to  escape,  but  also  to  convey  array  the  air  in  the  attic,  which,  in  very 
hot  weather,  becomes  heated  to  suffocation  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  falling  upon 
the  roof. 

24.  Winter  Ventilation.  In  cold  weather  our  plan  for  ventilation  must  be 
changed.  Instead  of  conveying  away  the  heated  air,  we  wish  to  retain  it  in  the 
room  as  long  as  it  is  pure.  Then  drive  it  out  and  introduce  fresh  air.  The 
fetid  matter  from  the  breath  rises  with  it  at  first;  on  cooling,  it  descends.  It 
may  be  said  to  pervade  every  part  of  the  room.  Let  us  now  unite  two  opera¬ 
tions,  that  of  warming  and  ventilating.  Prepare  a  stove,  as  described  in  }]  29. 
This  will  give  us  an  unbounded  supply  of  pure  air  warmed  by  the  heat,  of  the 
stove  before  it  enters  the  room.  For  a  room  of  fifty  pupils  we  construct  two 
ventilating  tubes,  each  ten  inches  square  in  the  clear,  and  place  them  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  room  ;  or  one  of  fifteen  inches,  and  place  it  at  the  end  opposite  the 
doors.  They  extend  from  the  floor  to  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  there  terminate 
in  some  “  ejector,”  as  Emerson’s,  or  the  American.  An  aperture  is  made  in  the 
tube  near  the  ceiling,  and  another  near  the  floor.  They  are  readily  closed  with 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


19 


tight-fitting  doors.  All  the  joints  of  the  tubes  are  air-tight.  By  opening  the 
lower  aperture  the  air  escapes  into  the  tube,  and  passes  off.  When  the  fire  is 
burning  briskly  the  pure  hot  air  rises  to  the  ceiling,  the  cooler  falls  to  the  floor, 
and  is  thus  conveyed  away.  The  dust,  smoke,  and  all  impurities  may  soon  be 
exhausted  from  a  room  in  this  way.  To  cool  a  room  suddenly  open  both  the 
upper  and  lower  ventilator.  (See  70.) 

25.  Forced  Ventilation  may  be  secured  at  all  times  by  placing  a  stand  for 
a  lamp,  or  in  cities  where  gas  is  used,  a  gas-burner,  iu  the  ventilating  tube.  It 
may  be  situated  five  feet  from  the  floor,  and  be  accessible  through  a  door  in  the 
side  of  the  tube.  On  starting  the  flame  an  uplifting  column  of  air  will  always 
be  obtained,  which  can  be  relied  upon  for  carrying  away  the  foul  air  under  all 
circumstances. 

26.  Care  must  always  be  taken  that  cold  air,  when  admitted,  does  not  fall 
upon  the  heads  or  backs  of  the  occupants.  It  should  be  diffused  so  evenly  and 
gently  as  to  produce  no  perceptible  currents.  A  fine  screen,  judiciously  placed, 
through  which  the  air  may  pass,  will  effect  this  object.  Its  position  may  he 
overhead,  and  the  air  permitted  to  “  sift”  into  the  room  in  that  manner  But  in 
common  practice  the  careful  attention  of  a  teacher  will  regulate  this  matter. 

WARMING. 

27.  An  even  temperature  is  promotive  of  the  greatest  comfort  and  health.  In 
an  overheated  room  the  system  becomes  excited ;  the  children  grow  restless, 
peevish,  and  disorderly,  the  teacher  nervous  and  irritable.  Relaxation  will  fol¬ 
low,  exposing  the  system  to  insidious  attacks  of  fevers,  lung  diseases,  scrofula, 
&c.  A  cold  room  is  scarcely  less  harmful.  The  modes  of  heating  most  com¬ 
monly  in  vogue  are  the  fireplace  and  the  stove. 

28.  The  Fireplace,  fii-st  used  six  centuries  ago,  still  retains  a  strong  hold 
in  wooded  regions.  Although  it  wastes  fully  three-fourths  of  all  the  heat  gen¬ 
erated,  yet  it  likewise  changes  the  air  of  a  room  rapidly,  and  conveys  away  at 
the  same  time  the  impurities  which  may  exist  in  it.  By  contracting  the  open¬ 
ings  of  the  front  and  the  passage  at  the  throat  of  the  flue  it  is  made  less  wasteful 
of  fuel. 

The  position  of  the  fireplace  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  When  the  room  is  large  two 
will  be  needed,  one  at  each  side.  The  chimney  tops  must  be  carried  up  higher 
than  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  be  well  braced  that  they  may  not  blow  over. 

29.  Stove.  A  good  stove  will  not  waste  more  than  a  fourth  of  its  heat.  Of 
those  iu  common  use  for  country  schools,  where  wood  is  abundant,  the  style 
known  as  the  six  plated  revertible  flue  is  regarded  as  most  economical  of  fuel. 
Some  of  the  newer  styles  of  coal  stoves  are  still  better.  In  larger  rooms  two 
wood  stoves  will  be  needed.  Their  position  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

The  best  arrangement  for  warming  a  room  is  by  a  stove  placed  in  the  centre, 
encased  with  a  covering  of  zinc  or  galvanized  sheet-iron,  about  a  foot  from  the 
stove.  Let  a  pipe  open  into  this  space  from  underneath  connecting  with  the  ex¬ 
ternal  air.  It  should  be  closed  by  a  damper.  There  is  to  be  a  door  in  the 
casing  opposite  the  stove  door  through  which  to  attend  to  the  fire.  The  top  of 
the  casing  is  perforated  with  holes  for  the  passage  of  the  heated  air,  or  is  sup¬ 
plied  with  a  register.  By  the  use  of  a  stove  and  the  appendages  here  described, 
in  connection  with  the  ventilating  tube,  (fl  31,)  the  heated  air  rises  to  the  ceil¬ 
ing,  while  the  cold  and  somewhat  impure  portion  is  drawn  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  room.  The  newly  heated  air  is  the  purer.  After  it  has  risen  it  is  then 
dissipated  throughout  the  mass  of  atmosphere  around  it  until  the  whole  becomes 
pleasant  and  comfortable.  The  position  of  the  stove  is  at  S.  Fig.  1. 

30.  The  proper  temperature  of  a  school-room  is  between  sixty-five  and  sev¬ 
enty-two  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


20 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


IilGHTIJTG. 

31.  Too  much  light  on  the  eye  causes  pain  ;  if  long  continued,  blindness. 
Too  little  light  compels  the  student  to  bring  the  head  too  near  the  book,  induces 
a  habit  of  stooping,  and  produces  near-sightedness.  Cross-rays — those  falling 
on  the  eye  from  an  end  and  a  side  of  a  room — are  injurious.  To  a  disregard  of 
these  facts  may  be  traced  the  early  failing  of  that  strength,  clearness,  and  beauty 
of  the  eye  for  which  nothing  can  compensate. 

The  mean  to  be  secured  is  an  even,  mild,  mellow  light  that  shall  not  pain  by 
its  intensity  nor  strain  the  nerve  by  its  faintness. 

32.  The  admission  of  light  must  be  regulated  by  the  windows.  They  should 
not  come  nearer  the  floor  than  four  feet,  and  should  extend  high  up  towards  the 
ceiling.  The  reasons  are  two-fold.  If  they  descend  near  to  the  floor  the  air 
admitted  by  raising  a  window  will  strike  on  the  necks  and  heads  of  the  pupils. 
There  will  be  unnecessary  temptation  to  turn  the  attention  to  what  may  occur 
outside.  Again,  the  light  which  is  admitted  at  the  top  of  the  window  diffuses 
itself  more  equally  through  the  room,  and  falls  on  the  book  and  the  eye  more 
acceptably.  Venetian  blinds  with  movable  slats  are  the  best  appliances  we 
have  for  regulating  the  admission  of  light.  Those  placed  on  the  outside  have 
some  advantages  in  defending  against  the  heat  and  protecting  the  glass  from 
accident,  but  those  inside  are  more  manageable.  (See  70.)  Quite  a  perfect 
adjustment  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  both  kinds.  But  it  will  often  happen 
that  neither  will  be  supplied.  Curtains  may  then  be  made  to  take  their  place. 
Their  color  should  be  pleasant  to  the  eye,  as  green,  a  mild  brown  or  drab,  straw 
color,  or  a  tint  of  purple,  but  neither  black,  white,  nor  any  bright  color  is  ad¬ 
missible.  They  should  be  arranged  to  lower  from  the  top  instead  of  rolling  up 
from  the  bottom.  In  that  way  the  light  will  be  more  agreeably  diffused  through 
the  room.  When,  for  purposes  of  ventilation,  windows  are  placed  in  front  of 
the  pupils  or  facing  the  teacher,  they  should  be  provided  with  thick  curtains, 
capable  of  excluding  all  the  light  when  necessary. 

33.  While  on  the  subject  of  windows  a  hint  may  be  offered  on  a  ready  way 
to  lower  the  upper  sash  when  it  has  no  weights.  Take  a  chisel  and  mallet  and 
cut  out  a  strip  of  the  casing  underneath  the  sash,  say  twelve  or  sixteen  inches. 
Nail  an  inch  strip  against  the  casing  so  that  it  will  come  close  to  the  side  rail  or 
stile  of  the  sash.  Bore  a  quarter-inch  hole  through  the  stile  and  into  the  strip 
just  nailed  on.  One  hole  through  the  stile  is  sufficient ;  three  are  needed  in  the 
outside  strip.  With  the  use  of  an  iron  pin  or  hard  wood  peg  the  sash  may  be 
held  to  any  required  height.  In  default  of  a  strip  being  nailed  to  the  outside 
casing,  holes  may  be  bored  through  both  the  ripper  and  lower  stiles  to  answer 
the  purpose  about  as  well.  For  further  security  a  button  let  into  the  opposite 
stile,  say  half  way  from  its  top,  may  be  made  to  hold  the  upper  sash  in  place 
when  closed. 


PliAlOTING  THE  SCHOOL  HOUSE. 

34.  How  large  shall  the  school-house  be?  The  answer  to  this  question  will 
depend  chiefly  upon  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  accommodated,  but  in  part  upon 
the  system  of  teaching  adopted,  and  will  always  be  influenced  by  the  kind  and 
style  of  furniture  used. 

35.  The  Units  of  Measure. — One  teacher  to  a  room  and  forty-eight  pupils 
to  a  teacher  are  the  full  complements,  that  should  be  allowed.  Where  more 
teachers  are  required  there  must  he  more  rooms.  Two  teachers  cannot  work 
advantageously  together.  The  confusion  of  two  classes  reciting  at  the  same 
time,  and  two  persons  explaining  difficult  questions  or  commanding  order  simul¬ 
taneously,  cannot  fail  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  pupils  and  retard  their 
progress.  The  work  in  an  ungraded  school  is  greater  than  in  one  that  is  well 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


21 


classified.  It  is  better,  therefore,  in  rural  districts  to  calculate  on  giving  fewer 
pupils  to  a  teacher.  Twenty-five  are  sufficient  to  employ  all  the  time  and  ener 
gies  of  a  first-rate  instructor.  Could  parents  make  up  their  minds  to  meet  the 
extra  expense  they  would  be  better  satisfied  with  the  result.  The  law  of  com¬ 
pensation  holds  true  in  regard  to  teachers  as  in  the  market  place  :  We  must  give 
value  to  get  value  in  return. 

36.  It  may  he  remarked,  in  passing,  that  when  the  school  increases  beyond 
the  number  which  the  teacher  can  attend  to,  the  teacher’s  room  may  be  used  as 
a  class-room  by  an  assistant  or  one  of  the  advanced  pupils  in  hearing  the  recita¬ 
tions  of  the  beginners.  All  the  plans  contemplate  this  as  a  probable  necessity, 
and  have  been  arranged  accordingly. 


The  divisions  in  the 
rows  represent  the  spaces 
occupied  by  the  desks  and 
seats.  Single  desk  2  feet 
in  front  by  2J  feet  in  the 
row;  inside  aisles  ij  foot; 
side  aisles  3J  feet ;  end 
aisles  3  feet  Teacher’s 
platform,  5x6  feet.  Size 
of  room,  2SJ  x  23  feet. 

37.  Suppose  the  school 
officers  on  counting  up  find 
that  they  need  to  provide 
a  house  for  thirty-five  or 
forty  pupils.  Only  a  small 
building  is  required.  Let 
us  lay  two  plans  :  one,  for 
seating  each  of  the  pupils 
at  a  desk  alone ;  the  other, 
two  at  a  desk.  The  thirty- 
five  pupils,  if  seated  sepa¬ 
rately,  would  of  course 
require  thirty-five  desks. 
They  are  to  be  arranged 
in  convenient  form  for  the 
observation  and  instruc- 

tion  of  the  teacher,  as  well 
Fig.  2.  School-room  for  thirty-five  pupils  at  single  desks.  ag  for  their  own  comfort. 

Let  us  divide  them  into  five  rows  of  seven  in  a  row.  Set  them  a  foot  and 
a  half  apart  to  give  passage  ways.  This  forms  a  parallelogram-shaped  block 
sixteen  feet  across  in  front  and  seventeen  and  a  half  deep.  Add  an  aisle  three 
and  a  half  feet  to  each  side,  the  total  width  is  sixteen  feet.  An  aisle  of  three 
feet  in  rear,  another  of  three  feet  in  front  next  the  platform,  with  the  width  of 
the  platform,  five  feet,  added,  will  give  a  total  length  of  twenty-eight  and  a  half 
feet.  The  teacher  and  each  pupil  has  an  average  space  on  the  floor  of  nearly 
twenty  feet.  This  is  a  very  suitable  form  for  a  school  room. 


22 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Fig.  3.  A  diagram  stowing  the  mode  of  arranging  school-rooms  for  42,  48,  56,  and  64 
pupils  at  double  desks.  Also,  the  size  and  position  of  the  teacher’s  room  and  ante-rooms 
adjoining. 


38.  Full-sized  double  desks  occupy  a  floor  space  equal  to  4  feet  in  front  by  2J 
feet  in  rear.  The  side  aisles  are  3^  feet  wide;  inside  aisles,  2  feet;  rear  aisle, 
3  feet;  front  aisle,  3  feet;  teacher's  platform,  5  feet.  The  sizes  of  the  teacher’s 
room  and  ante-rooms  are  shown  in  the  engraving. 

39.  Plan  of  School-house  for  Forty-two  Pupils — Forty-two  pupils 
will  require  twenty-one  double  desks.  The  most  convenient  form  in  which  they 
can  be  arranged  is  to  divide  them  into  three  rows  of  seven  in  a  row.  These  are 
indicated  by  the  continuous  lines.  Those  with  dotted  lines  have  reference  to 
other  plans.  Allowing  for  aisles  and  platform  as  above,  the  size  of  the  plan  is 
28i|  by  23  feet.  Each  pupil  and  the  teacher  will  have  an  average  area  on  the 
floor  of  fifteen  square  feet.  The  height  of  the  ceiling  should  be  12  feet.  This 
gives  180  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  occupant  of  the  room.  The  ante-rooms  are 
8  by  6  feet;  teacher’s  room,  G  by  7  feet.  Outside  measurement,  36  by  24  feet. 

40.  Persons  accustomed  to  living  under  ceilings  not  more  than  seven  feet 
high  will  be  likely  to  object  to  the  heights  here  recommended.  If  they  will 
not  waive  their  objections  and  require  the  sides  of  the  rooms  to  be  lower,  let 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


23 


the  ceiling  extend  np  on  the  rafters  to  the  collar-beams.  It  is  even  better,  where 
the  climate  will  admit,  to  have  no  ceiling  to  the  smaller  school-houses  than  to 
box  the  children  up  within  such  narrow  spaces  that  their  health  will  he  con¬ 
tinually  in  jeopardy  from  the  bad  air  in  the  room.  (See  ventilation,  21.) 

The  positions  of  the  ante-rooms  in  the  plan  are  properly  represented.  As 
the  pupils  come  in  and  go  out  they  will  pass  near  the  teacher  and  be  less  liable 
to  be  disorderly  than  if  they  left  the  room  at  the  opposite  end. 

41.  Plan  of  School-house  for  Forty-eight  Pupils. — Six  additional  seats 
are  required  to  be  added  to  the  last  plan.  Throw  the  rear  wall  two  feet  farther 
back  to  the  heavy  dotted  line.  This,  with  the  few  inches  gain  which  will  be 
likely  to  accrue  in  seating,  will  give  room  for  one  more  desk  to  be  added  to  each 
of  the  three  rows.  The  extra  desks  are  shown  by  dotted  lines.  No  other  change 
need  be  made. 

The  size  of  the  room  is  30^  by  23  feet.  Outside  measurement  of  plan  is  38 
by  24  feet.  The  height  of  ceiling  should  be  13  feet. 

42.  Plan  of  School-house  for  Fifty-six  Pupils. — To  lengthen  the  room 
would  make  it  disproportionate  for  its  width.  It  is  better  to  bring  in  the  rear 
wall  to  its  former  position,  making  the  sides  28^  feet  in  length  and  extend  on  the 
right,  as  represented  in  the  cut  by  the  heavy  dotted  line,  far  enough  to  give 
space  for  another  row  of  desks,  (4  feet,)  and  aisle,  (2  feet,)  making  its  size  2SJ  by 
29  feet.  Remove  the  teacher’s  platform  3  feet  to  the  right.  Extend  the  front 
wall  2  feet  to  give  an  opportunity  for  enlarging  the  ante-rooms  and  the  teacher’s 
room.  With  this  number  of  pupils  attending,  the  teacher  will  need  an  assistant,  or 
the  aid  of  an  advanced  pupil  to  hear  some  of  the  beginners  in  another  room.  The 
ante-rooms  will  be  enlarged  to  8  by  8  feet  and  the  teacher’s  to  13  by  8  feet. 
This  is  practically  enlarging  the  school-room.  The  ceiling  should  be  13^  to  14 
feet  high. 

A  large  sum  of  money  may  he  expended  on  a  school  building  of  this  size, 
yet  a  veiy  moderate  amount  may  be  made  to  procure  all  the  substantial  advan¬ 
tages  in  a  modest  and  comfortable  structure. 

43.  Plan  of  School-house  for  Sixty-four  Pupils. — Following  out  the 
same  mode  of  enlarging  as  before,  we  remove  the  rear  wall  two  feet  and  get 
room  for  another  desk  at  each  of  the  four  rows,  indicated  in  the  cut  by  dotted 
lines.  Each  row  now  contains  eight  double  desks,  at  which  sixty-four  pupils 
may  be  accommodated.  The  room  is  30^  by  29  feet.  Outside  measurement 
40  by  30  feet 

With  a  ceiling  14  feet  high,  and  the  teacher’s  room  regularly  occupied  as  a 
class-room,  the  space  to  a  pupil  on  the  floor  would  be  15  feet,  and  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  of  atmosphere  would  be  180.  But  when  the  teacher’s  room  should 
not  be  occupied  and  all  the  desks  in  the  room  are  used,  the  air  in  the  room  will 
rapidly  become  vitiated.  To  relieve  it,  as  well  as  to  lessen  the  burden  of  the 
teacher,  the  younger  children  may  be  dismissed,  or  lake  a  recess,  after  their  morn¬ 
ing  exercises  are  passed. 

44.  In  planning  buildings  which  demand  accommodations  for  many  pupils  the 
elements  here  laid  down  will  aid  in  arriving  at  the  proper  form,  size,  and  general 
arrangement.  It  is  not  well  to  build  several  stories  high.  Two  should  be  the 
limit.  Extend  the  rooms  in  either  direction.  Carry  up  towers  for  stairways  ; 
or,  better  still,  build  piazzas  from  which  to  ascend  by  stairways  to  the  upper 
story.  To  avoid  many  blunders,  let  the  plans  be  well  considered ;  consult  an 
experienced  teacher  as  well  as  a  good  architect  before  letting  the  job  or  begin¬ 
ning  the  work. 

45.  Table  of  School-rooms,  showing  sizes  required  for  the  different  desks 
to  seat  a  given  number  of  pupils.  The  side  aisles  are  3J  feet;  inside  aisles,  2 
feet;  rear  aisles,  3  feet;  front  aisle  and  platform,  8  feet;  space  allowed  a  desk 
in  a  row,  2J  feet. 


24 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


Desk. 

Length. 

No.  c 

Size  ot  room. 

pupils. 

No. 

pupils. 

Size  of  room. 

No. 

pupils. 

Size  of  room. 

No. 

pupils. 

Size  of  room. 

Xo.  1 

4ft.  Din. 

42  ,  284  bv  23  ft.. 

48 

31  by  23  ft. 

56 

284  by  29  ft. 

64 

31  by  29  ft. 

No.  2 

3 't.  10  in. 

42  284  by  224  ft. 

48 

31  by  224  ft. 

56 

284  by  284  ft. 

64 

31  by  234  ft. 

No.  3 

3  ft.  8  in. 

42  284  by  22  ft. 

48 

31  by  22  ft. 

56 

284  by  27f  ft. 

64 

31  by  274  ft. 

No.  4 

3  ft.  6  in. 

42  , 284  by  214  ft. 

48 

31  by  214  ft. 

56 

284  by  27  ft. 

64 

31  by  27  ft. 

€!©I¥STI£XTCTICm  ©F  SEMOOE-MOITSES. 


46.  The  hints  on  the  construction  of  different  styles  of  buildings,  the  bills  of 
material  and  labor,  also  the  specifications  attached  to  several  of  the  designs,  have 
been  furnished  by  master- mechanics  or  architects  skilled  in  their  business. 
They  are  intended  to  aid  school  officers  as  well  as  suggest  to  less  experienced 
workmen  those  ready  ways  by  which  close  observers  and  successful  craftsmen 
learn  to  do  plain  work  rapidly,  cheaply,  and  well.  The  man  who  can  do  twice 
as  much  as  another  in  a  given  time  can  not  only  make  more  money,  but  also  have 
more  leisure  for  improvement  and  recreation.  Such  men  work  with  their  minds  as 
well  as  their  hands,  and  thus  learn  those  ready  ways  which  give  them  their  ad¬ 
vantage  over  less  active  and  thoughtless  men. 


t 


Fig.  4.  Design  for  Log  School-house. 


47.  The  wigwam  is  superseded  by  houses  built  of  logs  before  saw-mills  are 
erected  in  a  new  country.  Combining,  as  it  does,  not  a  few  excellences,  this 
style  of  building  deserves  more  consideration  than  it  receives.  There  is  no  good 
reason  why  a  well-built  log-house  should  not  be  as  comfortable  as  any  other. 
Logs  are  non-conductors  of  heat.  The  sun  does  not  “strike  through  them,”  as 
through  a  common  hollow,  or  any  tliin-walled  house.  The  timber  can,  in 
wooded  regions,  be  had  for  the  asking.  The  chopping,  hauling,  and  construc¬ 
tion  involve  more  labor  than  the  box-frame  style  of  building,  but  the  “money 
out”  is  less.  Where  labor  and  timber  are  plenty  and  money  scarce,  let 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


9 1 


there  be  more  pains  taken  in  erecting  tbe  building ;  then  every  advantage  that 
is  absolutely  necessary  may  be  gained.  A  good  log-house  will  last  a  generation. 

The  main  building  is  34  by  30  feet,  with  a  lean-to  of  eight  feet,  subdivided 
into  a  teacher’s  room  and  ante-rooms  ;  pitch  of  roof,  17  feet ;  projection  of  eaves, 
3  feet;  height  of  ceiling,  13  feet. 

48.  The  construction  of  a  log-house  is  generally  best  understood  by  the  fron¬ 
tiersmen  who  use  them.  The  following  hints  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  be¬ 
ginners  : 

Select  timber  which  will  last  well  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  The  logs 
should  be  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter.  The  sills  might  be  heavier,  say  16 
inches,  squared,  hollowed  at  the  ends  and  pinned,  or,  better,  spiked  with  60- 
penny  nails.  The  floor  timbers  are  mortised  with  the  sills  and  supported  in 
centre  by  a  bearing  beam,  as  in  49.  The  ceiling,  joists,  and  rafters  are  lighter, 
say  7  inches.  After  they  are  up  the  joists  may  be  stayed  to  the  rafters  to  pre¬ 
vent  their  settling.  Still  smaller  sticks  may  be  used  for  the  partitions,  say  4  or 
5  inches  in  diameter. 

There  are  several  ways  of  making  the  partitions.  One  is  to  lay  the  logs 
horizontally  between  two  standards  or  upright  posts  at  each  end.  Another  is  to 
plough  out  a  groove  in  larger  sticks,  squared,  say  two  inches  deep.  Set  up  one 
at  each  end  of  a  partition,  and  for  door  posts.  Hew  down  the  ends  of  the  stuff 
for  partitions  so  they  will  fit  nicely  into  the  groove.  This  done,  put  them  in 
their  places.  They  should  be  smoothly  payed  on  each  side  with  stiff  clay,  or 
chinked  in  the  ordinary  way.  They  may  also  be  made  of  tongued  and  grooved 
inch  and  a  quarter  stuff,  set  upright,  run  into  grooves  in  a  head  piece  above  and 
fixed  by  strips  nailed  each  side  at  the  bottom.  Let  the  roof  project  far  over 
the  sides  to  shield  them  from  the  storms  and  hot  sun. 

The  ceiling  may  be  covered 
with  boards,  battened,  and  the 
whole  inside  whitewashed.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  lath  and  plas¬ 
ter  when  lime,  sand,  and  hair  are 
obtainable.  Then,  with  good 
furniture,  the  establishment  may 
well  challenge  our  pride.  On 
such  a  house  not  over  two  hun¬ 
dred  dollars  iu  money  need  be 
expended  to  accommodate  fifty  to 
sixty-four  pupils. 

The  finial  (tbe  ornament  on 
the  peak  of  the  roof)  should  be 
made  of  some  regularly  branching 
sapling,  the  limbs  trimmed  to 
even  len edits. 

o 

Description  of  Plan. 

Scale  Jg  inch  to  I  foot. 

A.  School-room,  32  hy  2S  feet. 

B.  Boys’  ante-room,  8  by  7  feet. 
0.  Girls’  ante-room,  8  by  7  feet. 
D.  Teacher’s  ante-room,  11  by  7 

feet. 

Size  of  desks  to  be  used,  No.  3. 
Side  aisles,  3j-  feet. 

Centre  aisle,  2-J  feet. 

Rear  aisle,  4  feet. 

l'ig.  5.  Plan  of  Log  School-house  for  sixty  pupils.  Outside  measurement,  34  by  30 

feet. 


26 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


By  using  desks,  size  No.  3,  (f[  97,)  the  aisles  will  be  of  good  width.  The 
first  tier  of  seats  should  be  set  about  five  feet  from  the  back  end.  To  make 
room  for  those  who  come  to  the  fire,  leave  out  a  desk  from  each  of  the  two  mid¬ 
dle  rows.  A  screen  will  be  needed  in  front  of  the  fire.  Should  it  be  preferred 
to  have  the  girls  and  boys  enter  their  ante-rooms  directly  from  separate  yards 
on  either  side  of  the  building,  this  can  be  attained  by  changing  the  doors  from 
the  front  to  the  sides  and  placing  the  windows  in  front.  The  garret  over  the 
school-room  is  large.  It  may  be  used  to  store  extra  seats  in.  There  should  be 
a  trap-door  in  the  ceiling  and  a  ladder  to  ascend  to  the  garret.  On  one  side 
of  the  chimney  a  stationary  Venetian  blind  should  he  placed  to  be  used  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  window  in  the  other  end,  to  allow  the  air  to  escape  that  may 
become  heated  in  summer  or  vitiated  from  any  cause.  If  care  be  taken  in  the 
construction,  and  then  the  finishing  include  lathing  and  plastering,  as  well  as 
ventilating  and  lighting  in  a  proper  manner,  the  log  school-house  will  do  well  for 
many  years. 

49.  The  box  frame  is  the  simplest  style  of  building  a  house  of  sawed 
lumber.  It  has  sills,  floor  timbers,  plates,  and  rafters,  but  no  posts,  studding  nor 
framed  braces.  Let  us  take  the  ground  plan  designed  to  accommodate  thirty- 
five  pupils  with  single  desks  or  forty-two  at  double  desks  (ff  39)  and  erect  a 
building  over  it.  The  outside  measurement  is  thirty- six  by  twenty-four  feet. 
This  allows  six  inches  for  each  outside  covering.  It  will  not  take  quite  so  much. 
But  as  we  will  not  begin  by  begrudging  space,  from  which  comes  comfort,  conve¬ 
nience,  and  health,  to  those  for  whom  we  most  delight  to  labor,  the  building  may 
be  framed  accordingly. 

We  mortise  the  side  and  tenon  the  end  sills,  or  vice  versa.  They  are  6  by  8 
inches,  framed  to  lie  edgewise,  if  there  is  not  a  continuous  wall  laid  for  them  to 
rest  upon.  The  centre  sill,  running  lengthwise,  also  called  a  bearing-beam, 
stands  two  inches  lower  than  the  others  and  is  well  supported  by  frequent  piers. 
Leave  the  ends  of  the  side-sills  on  until  the  sides  are  up. 

The  floor  timbers  are  gained  down  two  inches  at  the  outer  ends  and  come  flush 
with  the  sill.  The  ends  which  rest  on  the  bearing  beam  are  not  gained  at  all. 
Spike  them  to  the  sills.  When  the  floor  is  laid  the  building  cannot  spread. 
Care  has  of  course  been  taken  that  the  piers  are  level  and  correspond  to  the 
ground  plan. 

Inch  and  a  quarter  plank  8  or  10  inches  wide  are  used  for  the  siding.  They 
are  first  cut  to  lengths.  We  commence  at  the  corners.  Take  two  plank;  saw 
off  one  so  that  it  will  fit  over  the  projecting  end  of  a  sill  ;  nail  them  together; 
set  up ;  plumb  and  stay.  The  same  at  the  other  corners.  The  plates  having 
been  cut  the  length  of  the  side-sills,  may  be  raised  to  their  places,  even  height 
with  the  corner- boards,  nailed  to  them  and  shored  up  in  the  centre.  Put  up 
scaffolding  from  which  to  nail  the  upper  ends  of  the  siding.  Side  up.  Leave 
no  openings  for  doors  or  windows.  Saw  them  out  afterwards  wherever  you 
want  them. 

A  shorter  way  where  there  are  half  a  dozen  workmen  on  the  job,  is  to  make 
a  platform  of  the  floor  timbers  and  roof  boards ;  lay  a  side-sill  in  place  and  a 
plate  the  right  distance  inside  to  nail  the  siding  to.  Look  out  that  the  ends  are 
even  and  that  the  first  plank  nailed  on  is  at  right  angles  with  both  sill  and  plate. 
They  have  all  been  cut  to  lengths  and  may  now  be  nailed  on  rapidly.  This 
done,  all  hands  take  hold,  raise  the  side  to  its  place,  plumb  and  stay.  Serve 
the  other  side  in  the  same  way. 

A  slip-mortise  is  preferred  by  some  builders  for  the  ends  of  the  sills  to  the 
common  mortise  and  tenon.  The  side-sills  are  cut  to  the  right  length.  The 
mortise  is  made  quite  out  to  the  end.  The  tenon  on  the  end  sill  is  left  the 
whole  width  of  the  stick.  They  are  slipped  together  and  spiked  with  60-penny 
nails.  The  spikes  are  far  preferable  to  wooden  pins.  They  are  cheaper  and 
hold  better. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


27 


End  elevation. 


The  beams  or  ceiling  joists  are  gained  down  one  inch  and  a  quarter.  Raise 

the  two  end  ones  first ;  then  the  rest.  If 
they  are  to  be  lathed  on  they  will  be  placed 
either  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  apart  from 
centre  to  centre.  If  not,  two  feet  is  near 
enough.  Nail  them  firmly  to  the  plates  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  spreading  of  the  roof.  Next  put  on 
the  roof.  Finish  with  the  corner  boards, 
base,  battens,  &c.  Cut  out  for  the  doors  and 
windows,  and  case  up  the  openings. 

The  engravings  explain  themselves.  They 
present  a  view  of  the  position  of  the  doors 
and  windows,  the  Venetian  blind  in  the  gable 
for  ventilation,  (see  30,)  the  rafters  and  the 
ridge-board,  to  which  they  are  nailed  to  keep 
them  in  place,  the  piers,  &c.  In  finish  it  is 
perfectly  plain.  The  eaves  project  three  feet. 
To  correspond  let  the  corner  board,  base,  &c.,  be  broad  and  heavy.  Then  the 
building  will  not  look  mean  and 
poverty-stricken,  but  seem  to 
be  devised  with  some  degree  of 
liberality. 

The  overhanging  eaves,  be¬ 
sides  improving  the  appeai*ance 
of  the  house,  carry  the  water 
which  falls  on  the  roof  quite 
away  from  the  sides.  They  also 
shield  them  from  the  sun’s  rays, 
and  allow  the  windows  to  be  low¬ 
ered  from  the  top  for  ventilation 
on  rainy  days.  Thus  they  make 
the  building  more  comfortable 

and  lasting.  Fig.  7.  Side  elevation. 


50.  A  batten  to  be  worth  anything  must  have  its  corners  chamfered  off,  as 

shown  in  the  cut.  When  this  is 
done  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
v  weather  makes  it  hug  the  siding 

more  closely.  When  it  is  neg¬ 
lected  the  same  causes  curl  up 
the  edges,  draw  the  nails,  and 
leave  the  cracks  exposed,  which 
they  were  made  to  cover. 

The  material  for  battens  should 
be  straight-rifted,  heart  stuff,  an 
inch  and  a  half  thick,  two  and  a 
half  wide.  The  expert  work¬ 
man,  who  studies  how  to  save  labor,  will  make  a  box  in  which  to  place  the 
battens  one  after  another,  and  chamfer  off  their  corners  rapidly  and  nicely  with 
a  drawing-knife.  If  the  under  side  of  the  batten  was  grooved  out  it  would  still 
be  an  improvement.  It  will  hardly  pay  to  do  that  by  hand. 

The  stationary  Venetian  blind  in  the  gable  is  for  purposes  of  ventilation. 
(See  ^1  23.)  The  slats  should  be  broad,  and  placed  near  together  to  prevent 
storms  beating  in.  A  fan-door,  hung  on  pivots,  is  placed  in  the  ceiling,  to  be 
used  in  regulating  the  escape  of  impure  air  from  the  room. 


Fig.  8.  Cross  section  of  a  batten.  Full  size. 


28 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


Bill  of  materials  and  worlc  for  a  box-frame  building  36  by  21  feet ;  ceiling ,  12 


feet  ;  pitch  of  roof  6  feet  ;  projection  of  eaves,  3  feet. 

Feet. 

Sills,  2  pieces,  6  by  8  inches,  38  feet  long . - .  304 

Cross  sills,  1  piece,  6  by  8  inches,  38  feet  long .  ]52 

Cross  sills,  2  pieces,  6  by  8  incln  s  25  feet  long .  200 

Plates,  2  pieces,  2  by  6  inches,  36  feet  long .  72 

Floor  timbers,  30  pieces,  3  by  12  inches,  24  feet  long .  1,  S00 

Ceiling  joists,  12  pieces,  2  by  8  inches,  24  feet  long .  384 

Rafters,  26  pieces,  3  by  8  inches,  18  feet  long. . .  . .  936 

Roof  boards . . .  .  1,  400 

Flooring,  (surface  measure,)  960  added,  240) .  1,  200 

Siding,  (surface  measure,)  1,930  (^  added,  4S0) .  2,  410 

Finishing  stuff  for  door  and  window  frames,  casings,  base,  battens,  &c.  2,  500 


Total . . . . .  11,360 


Shingles . 12,000 

Doors .  5 

Windows .  7 

Nails,  in  following  proportions :  shingle,  60  lbs. ;  8-penny,  40  lbs. ; 

10  penny,  400  lbs. ;  12-penny,  100  lbs. ;  20-penny,  33  lbs. ;  40- 

penny,  34  lbs.;  60-penny,  33  lbs.  Total  kegs .  7 

Brick  (8  by  4  by  2  inches) .  400 

Carpenter’s  work,  days .  230 


51.  We  have  now  only  the  shell  of  a  house.  It  may  be  used  without  plaster¬ 
ing  the  side  walls  ;  but  the  ceiling  should  be  lathed  and  plastered.  The  partitions 
may  be  of  inch  and  a  half  stuff,  planed,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  set  endwise. 
Or  without  tongues  and  grooves,  in  the  rough,  battened  and  whitewashed  as  all 
the  insides  of  the  rooms  should  be.  Many  a  school  is  prospering  in  poorer 
quarters.  In  the  extreme  south,  where  private  dwellings  have  been  occupied 
for  years  without  plastering  and  considered  comfortable,  this  style  of  house 
will  do  well  to  commence  with,  especially  if  nicely  furnished.  If  the  house 
stands  in  an  exposed  position  where  the  winds  would  be  liable  to  injure  it,  boards 
may  be  nailed  on  the  inside  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  siding  to 
make  it  perfectly  staunch  and  secure. 

The  extra  expense  for  lathing  and  plastering  would  be  but  trifling.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  are  tiie  additional  items  : 

Laths,  4,650  ;  wainscoting,  two  feet  on  front  end  and  sides,  four  feet  on 
back  end  and  in  the  ante  and  teacher’s  rooms,  540  feet;  lath-nails,  20  pounds  ; 
plastering,  340  yards ;  mason’s  work,  including  chimney,  34  days. 

The  materials  for  a  balloon  frame  building  of  the  above  description  include 
those  already  given  and  the  following  additional : 

For  frame,  2  by  6  inches,  1,400  feet  long;  partitions,  3  by  4  inches,  432  feet 
long;  nails,  10-penny,  200  pounds;  carpenter’s  work,  40  days. 

For  the  method  of  constructing  a  balloon  frame,  reference  may  be  had  to  65. 

There  are  other  methods  of  erecting  wooden  buildings  without  frames;  as,  for 
instance,  using  strips  of  boards  sawed  to  widths  of  5J  and  6  inches.  They  are 
laid  flatwise,  commencing  with  a  6-inch  strip,  then  a  51,-inch,  and  so  on,  alter¬ 
nating.  The  outer  edges  are  carried  up  plumb.  The  walls  are  then  ready  for  the 
plastering  without  lathing.  No  regard  is  paid  to  the  openings  for  windows  until 
the  sides  are  laid  up  to  the  height  of  the  frames.  The  openings  are  sawed  out 
and  the  frames  set  in.  The  same  with  the  doors.  Finally,  cover  with  siding 
to  prevent  storms  from  driving  in. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES, 


29 


This  makes  a  cool  house  iti  summer  and  a  warm  one  in  winter.  Yet  it  is  not 
so  cheaply  built  as  the  box  frame  just  described.  The  use  of  concrete  is  con¬ 
sidered  under  the  head  of  cottages,  ^j  111. 


Fig.  9.  Design  for  a  Plain  Country  School-house. 


52.  In  Fig.  9  we  have  an  elevation  in  perspective  of  a  plain  country  school- 
house.  It  corresponds  in  style  and  general  construction  to  the  requirements  ot 
a  school  of  thirty-five,  forty-two,  forty-eight,  fifty-six,  or  sixty-four  pupils.  The 
ground  plans  for  these  buildings  are  described  in  fjfl  39  to  43,  inclusive.  The  end 
and  side  elevations  are  shown  in  Figs,  6  and  7.  The  method  of  construction  is 
given  in  49.  The  appearance  of  the  building  will  be  decidedly  improved  by 
a  good  coat  of  paint,  in  such  colors  as  will  present  a  pleasing  and  striking  con¬ 
trast.  Suggestions  on  this  point  are  given  under  the  head  of  Color  of  Cottages 
and  School-buildings. 

53.  The  sills  are  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  from  the  ground,  on  piers  of 
brick  or  stone.  When  no  better  material  can  be  procured,  sections  of  red  cedar 
logs  or  other  enduring  timber  may  be  used.  They  are  placed  six  to  ten  feet 
apart.  Their  height  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  air  in  order  to  prevent  the  accumu¬ 
lation  of  dampness,  which,  on  low  lands,  occasions  mildew,  and  is  prejudicial  to 
health.  Care  will  be  taken  that  the  tops  of  the  piers  all  lie  in  the  same  hori¬ 
zontal  plane. 

Grading  may  often  be  necessary  before  erecting  the  building  to  secure  a  suffi¬ 
cient  slope  from  the  house  t,o  carry  off  the  water  at  all  times.  If  the  soil  be 
moist,  blind  drains  must  be  laid  through  the  yard  and  play-grounds.  The  plat¬ 
forms  at  the  doors  will  usually  be  too  small  for  the  children  to  congregate  on, 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  gather  closely  around  the  school-room  door. 
A  good  coat  of  gravel  on  broad  walks  will  be  found  very  useful.  Another  im¬ 
provement  may  be  introduced — that  of  a  porch  across  the  whole  front  end — not 
to  do  away  with  the  gravel  walks,  but  to  form  a  shelter  for  those  who  come 
before  the  doors  are  opened,  and  for  protection  from  the  sun  when  the  building 
is  located  to  face  the  south.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  if  the  front 
doors  are  towards  the  north,  the  pupils,  when  at  their  seats,  will  face  in  that 
direction.  Many  teachers  esteem  this  an  advantage  when  pursuing  the  study 
of  geography. 


30 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Bill  of  materials  and  work  for  school-house,  40  by  30  feet;  ceiling,  14  feet ; 

pitch  of  roof  7^ feet. 


Feet. 


Frame,  2  by  6  inches,  1,600  feet  long .  1,  600 

Partitions,  3  by  4  inches,  560  feet  long . . .  560 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches,  140  feet  long .  560 

Plates,  3  by  6  inches,  140  feet  long .  210 

Floor  timbers,  30  pieces,  3  by  10  inches,  30  feet  long . .  2,  250 

Bearing  beam,  1  piece,  6  by  8  inches,  40  feet .  160 

Ceiling  joists,  13  pieces,  3  by  8  inches,  30  feet  long .  780 

Rafters,  28  pieces,  3  by  S  inches,  20  feet  long .  1,  120 

Flooring,  (surface  measure) .  1,200 

Siding,  (surface  measure) .  2,200 

Roof  boards .  1,600 

Wainscoting .  600 

Boards,  for  finishing .  1,  500 


Total 


14,  340 


Shingles .  14,  000 

Laths .  6,  000 

Plastering,  yards . . .  470 

Brick,  (8  by  4  by  2  inches) . . .  1,  500 

W  indows . 9 

Doors .  4 

Nails,  kegs .  10 

Carpenters’  work,  days .  320 

Masons’  work,  days . 44 


The  specifications  which  follow  give  some  different  sizes  for  the  timber  from 
the  above.  Either  will  answer.  The  mechanic  will  exercise  his  choice  in  that 
regard.  The  size  fixed  upon  should  be  inserted  in  the  specifications. 


54.  Specification  for  school-building  of  wood,  one  story  high,  thirty  feet  front 
and  rear,  and  forty  feet  from  front  to  rear,  to  finish  fourteen  feet  high  in  the 
clear  of  floor  and  ceiling  when  done. 

Timber. — Floor  beams,  3  by  8  inches,  placed  20  inches  from  centres,  and  will 
rest  on  7  by  9  bearing  beam  extending  from  front  to  rear ;  this  bearing  beam  to 
rest  on  five  posts,  not  less  than  7  inches  at  the  small  end  and  5  feet  long ;  sills, 
6  by  8  inches  ;  floor  beams  framed  in  plates,  4  by  6  inches,  well  halved  together 
at  the  angles.  Rafters,  3  by  7  inches,  placed  30  inches  apart  from  centres,  with 
collars  1^  by  7  inches,  12  feet  long,  spiked  on  each  pair  of  rafters.  Ceiling  joists, 
2  by  8  inches,  placed  30  inches  from  centres,  and  suspended  from  the  rafters  by 
strips  of'  board.  All  the  above  will  be  good,  sound  yellow  pine. 

Siiiixg. — The  building  to  be  what  is  termed  box-framed ;  exterior  formed 
with  lj  inch  matched  white  pine  plank,  16  feet  long,  with  battens,  2|  by  lj 
inch,  nailed  over  each  joint. 

Furring. — Ceiling  furred  for  lathing  on  strips,  1  by  2  inches,  placed  12 
inches  fmm  centres;  horizontal  furring  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the  siding  boards, 
placed  20  inches  apart,  and  on  them  nail  vertical  strips  of  furring,  1  by  2  inches, 
placed  12  inches  from  centres,  and  upon  these  put  the  lath. 

Partitions. — These  set  with  3  by  4  joists,  placed  12  inches  from  centres; 
doors  placed  where  shown.  These  will  be  2  feet  10  inches  by  7  feet  6  inches. 

Floor. — Lay  floor  with  lj  inch  yellow  pine  matched  plank,  not  exceeding  9 
inches  in  width. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


31 


Hoof. — Cover  rafters  with  yellow  pine  boards  not  exceeding  3  inches  apart, 
and  on  them  put  heart  pine  or  cypress  shaved  shingles,  laying  them  not  more 
than  one-third  of  their  length  to  the  weather ;  the  roof  to  have  a  pitch  of  7£ 
inches  to  the  foot. 

Cornice. — The  ends  of  the  rafters  to  be  planed,  with  neat  finishing  boards  put 
on;  they  will  project  3  feet  on  all  sides.  Put  in  each  gable  a  stationary  Vene¬ 
tian  blind  in  suitable  frame,  with  slats  3  to  4  inches  wide. 

Ventilator — Put  in  ceiling  of  school-room  a  fan  door,  3  feet  square,  made 
of  J  inch  matched  pine,  in  neat  frame  and  made  to  operate  with  cords. 

Plastering. — Ceilings  and  side  walls  all  lathed  with  good  4  feet  sawed  lath 
put  on  with  not  less  than  five  nailings.  All  parts  of  the  building  lathed  will 
have  two  good  and  sufficient  coats  of  brown  mortar,  extra  well  haired,  put  on  and 
worked  down  straight  and  true. 

Chimney,  (for  stove.) — Construct  chimney  with  brick,  make  flue  9  by  9  in¬ 
ches,  this  commenced  2  feet  below  line  of  ceiling  and  carried  2J  feet  above  ridge 
of  roof,  and  furnished  with  stove  collar  and  soot  drawer;  chimney  supported  on 
joists  standing  on  the  floor. 

Painting  and  Glazing.* — All  wood-work  will  have  three  coats  of  light  drab 
paint ;  cornice,  dressings  to  doors  and  windows  and  water  table  will  all  be 
painted  a  dark  brown.  Sashes  all  glazed  with  good  American  glass,  well  tinned, 
and  set  in  good  putty.  Wainscoting  in  all  rooms  stained  with  raw  sienna,  aud 
will  have  two  coats  of  raw  linseed  oil. 

Wainscoting. — Sides  and  front  end  of  school-room  ceiled  up  two  feet  high 
with  half  inch  yellow  pine,  not  over  four  inches  wide,  tongued,  grooved,  and 
headed.  Back  end  of  school-room  and  ante-rooms  all  ceiled  with  same  material, 
aud  will  be  four  feet  high.  All  wainscoting  to  he  neatly  capped  with  proper 
mouldings. 

Windows. — Each  window  composed  of  twelve  lights  of  12  by  13  inches. 
Sashes  one  and  three-eighths  inch  thick,  hung  with  cords,  weights,  and  pulleys. 
Frames  to  be  what  are  termed  box  frames,  all  constructed  with  good,  sound, 
seasoned  heart  pine.  All  windows  neatly  cased  on  inside  and  outside. 

Doors. — All  doors  one  aud  a  half  inch  thick,  made  in  six  panels,  (three  wide,) 
and  will  be  two  feet  ten  inches  wide  and  seven  feet  six  inches  high,  made  from 
good,  sound,  seasoned  white  pine,  hung  with  cast  butts  and  furnished  with  cot¬ 
tage  locks  aud  brown  mineral  knobs. 

Blackboards. — Place  these  above  wainscoting  between  the  windows  on  the 
sides  and  the  front  end.  They  will  be  formed  of  plaster  and  colored,  and  will 
he  four  feet  six  inches  wide,  with  neat  border  of  wood  on  top,  and  trough  at  bot¬ 
tom,  four  inches  wide  with  moulding,  for  dust  brush,  crayons,  &c.  (See  82.) 

For  construction  of  privies,  see  70  and  91. 

*  For  common  unplaned  boards  the  following  recipe  will  make  a  good  whitewash :  Make 
one  bushel  of  lime  into  whitewash,  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  about  40  gallons  of  water;  add 
20  pounds  Spanish  whiting,  17  pounds  rock  salt,  and  12  pounds  of  brown  sugar.  Mix  well ; 
use  thin.  Apply  three  coats  for  outside  work. 


32 


SCIIOOL-HOIJSES  AND  COTTAGES 


tjffljW'llr, 


jgg.  _ _ ]— =ii 


Fig.  JO.  Design  for  School-house  with  Basement. 

55.  The  elevation  in  perspective  is  an  agreeable  illustration  of  the  effect 
which  can  be  produced  by  a  tasteful  application  of  the  rules  of  architecture 
without  materially  enhancing  the  cost  of  the  building.  Had  the  porch,  which 
includes  the  teacher’s  and  ante-rooms,  been  made  an  inartistic  lean-to,  the  effect 
would  have  been  strikingly  less  favorable.  All  together,  the  broad,  projecting 
roof,  the  hooded  windows,  and  the  variations  in  the  height  of  the  different  parts, 
are  happily  conceived.  The  style  may  be  used  in  the  smaller  as  well  as  larger 
buildings  It  may  sometimes  occur  at  the  time  of  construction  that  the  large 
recitation  room  will  not  be  required.  The  framing  of  the  main  part  may  have 
reference  to  putting  on  this  as  an  addition  when  it  will  be  needed.  When  the 
recitation  room  is  erected  the  school  officers  may  employ  a  competent  teacher 
the  year  round  to  conduct  the  school  in  the  main  room.  When  those  pupils 
who  are  obliged  to  remain  at  home  to  assist  their  parents,  or  earn  their  own  live¬ 
lihood  a  part  of  the  year,  are  able  to  attend,  an  assistant  may  be  employed  to 
hear  recitations  in  the  room  for  that  purpose.  In  this  way  the  general  progress 
of  all  the  school  will  be  promoted,  and  its  advancement  go  steadily  forward. 

The  plan  includes  a  basement  under  the  whole  house.  In  selecting  a  site  it 
would  be  well  to  choose  one  on  a  slight  declivity,  so  that  the  basement  may  be 
entered  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It.  may  be  fitted  up  with 
benches,  and  serve  as  a  place  for  neighborhood  gatherings.  The  school-room  is 
not  the  place  for  such  meetings.  The  desks  often  get  damaged  and  the  floors 
are  left  in  a  condition  u.ifit  for  school-room  floors. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


33 


School-room,  38  by  36  feet;  A  and  B,  ante-rooms,  9  by  8  feet ;  0,  teacher’s 
room,  12  by  8  feet;  D,  recitation  room,  20  by  16  feet;  H  H,  desks,  (No.  4,)  3 
feet  6  inches  long ;  outside  aisles,  3  feet  6  inches  ;  centre  aisle,  2  feet  4  inches  ; 
inside  aisles,  l  foot  8  inches  ;  S  S,  position  of  stoves. 

It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  frequent  changing  of  teachers  is  not  conducive 
to  the  best  interests  of  the  school.  It  takes  each  new-comer  some  weeks  to  as¬ 
certain  the  scholastic  attainments  of  all  the  pupils,  and  frequently  longer  to 
establish  those  intimate  relations  of  sympathy  and  personal  regard  which  are 
essential  to  the  management  of  the  school  by  the  noblest  means  and  with  the 
most  exalted  aims. 


Bill  of  materials  and  work  for  school-house  46  hy  36  feet,  with  addition  18  by 

15  feet. 

Feet. 


Sills,  10  hy  3  inches,  280  feet  long .  700 

Plates,  6  by  4  inches,  160  feet  long  .  320 

Beams,  6  by  6  inches,  250  feet  long  .  .  750 

Posts,  6  by  6  inches,  225  feet  long  ...  . .  675 

Studs  and  girts,  4  by  3  inches,  4,000  feet  long .  4,  000 

Floor  joists,  12  by  3  inches,  1,550  feet  long .  4,  650 

Ceiling  joists,  8  by  3  inches,  1,500  feet  long .  3,  000 

Rafters,  8  by  3  inches,  1,800  feet  long  .  .  3,  600 

Collar  beams,  6  by  lj  inches,  340  feet  long .  212 

Roof  boards  . .  6,  000 

Flooring,  (surface  measure,)  2,350  (^  added,  600)  .  2,  950 

Siding,  (surface  measure,)  4,700  (^  added,  1,200)  .  5,  900 

Battens . . . .  1,000 

Finishing  stuff . .  .  .  .  5,  500 

Wainscoting  . .  .  800 


Total 


40, 057 


Shingles .  23,  500 

Doors,  (8  by  3  feet) .  9 

Windows,  10  by  8  inches,  18  lights . .  9 


*  This  design  is  copied  by  permission  from  Johonnot’s  Country  School-houses  and  modified 
slightly  to  suit  this  work. 

3  s  c 


34 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Windows,  10  by  8  inches,  12  lights 

Window,  (mullion) . 

Bricks,  (8  by  4  by  2) . 

Lath . 

Nails,  kegs  . 

Carpenter’s  work,  days . 

Mason’s  work,  days  .  . . 


2 

1 

1,000 
13,  000 
13 
450 
75 


Specifications. 

56.  Excavations. — Here  state  the  depth  of  excavation  after  having  made 
inspection  of  the  site.  The  foundations  should  in  all  cases  be  laid  below  the 
action  of  frost.  The  privy  rault  is  to  be  6  feet  deep.  The  earth  to  be  properly 
graded  around  the  foundation  walls.  Any  surplus  not  required  for  perfect 
grading  to  be  hauled  away. 

Foundation  walls  are  to  be  well  built  of  (here  describe  the  material,)  well 
laid  in  good  lime  and  sand  mortar,  commenced  below  the  action  of  the  frost,  to  be 
1 f  foot  thick  and  show  3  feet  above  grade.  The  walls  to  be  built  to  the  size  of 
the  frame,  so  that  the  sill  shall  be  flush  with  the  outside  of  walls.  [When  there 
is  no  basement,  there  is  to  be  a  centre  wall  lengthwise  with  the  building  for  the 
bearing  beam  to  rest  upon.  When  there  is  a  basement  the  bearing  beam  is  to 
be  supported  with  standards  underneath,  which  describe.] 

Frame. — The  frame  is  to  be  of  the  sizes  stated  in  the  bill  of  materials  ac¬ 
companying  this  plan.  (Describe  the  kind  of  timber  to  be  used.)  To  be  of 
good  sound  stuff  without  any  objectionable  defects.  Timbers  that  are  to  be 
lathed  on,  to  stand  not  over  16  inches  apart  from  centres.  Where  black  walls 
(f|  82)  are  to  be  made,  not  over  12  inches  from  centres.  Floor  joists  2  feet  and 
rafters  3  feet  from  centres.  Ceiling  joists  stay-lathed  to  rafters. 

Siding  to  be  of  heart  yellow  pine,  If  inch  thick  and  not  over  10  inches 
wide.  Joints  battened,  form  as  shown  m  figure  8.  Siding  well  nailed  to  sills 
and  plates.  (If  siding  is  to  be  planed,  tongued,  and  matched,  let  that  be 
specified.) 

Roofs  to  be  boarded  with  sound  yellow  pine  boards,  laid  with  close  joints, 
and  well  nailed.  Shingles  (here  describe  kind  and  quality)  laid  not  over  one- 
third  their  length  to  the  weather.  Ridges  to  be  finished  with  saddle-boards  six 
inches  wide. 

CnRNicE. — Ends  of  rafters  to  be  planed  up  to  the  plate  and  covered  with 
matched  plank  planed  on  the  under  side  and  let  into  the  rafters  the  thickness  of 
the  plank. 

Doors  and  Windows. — (When  ready-made  doors  and  windows  are  used 
reference  should  be  bad  to  the  Table  of  Dimensions,  and  their  size  and  description 
inserted  accordingly.)  School-room  windows  to  be  of  8  by  10-inch  glass,  18 
lighted ;  porch  and  recitation  room  12  lights.  Sash  to  be  If  inch  thick. 
Glass,  the  best  American,  to  be  bedded  and  back-puttied,  and  the  sash  drawn. 
The  front  school-room  doors  8  by  3  feet,  If  inch  thick.  The  other  doors  7 
by  2  feet  8  inches,  If  inch  thick.  The  larger  doors  to  be  hung  with  three 
butts  each,  the  smaller  with  two.  One  front  door  to  be  furnished  with  a  good 
lock,  (describe  the  kind;)  all  the  others  with  mortise  latches  and  bolts. 

Floors  to  be  of  sound,  well  seasoned  yellow  pine,  matched,  tongued  and 
grooved,  If  inch  thick,  and  not  over  10  inches  wide;  to  be  well  nailed,  each 
plank  to  each  joist. 

Steps,  of  heart  yellow  pine  (if  other  material,  here  describe  it)  2  inches 
thick,  at  each  outside  door.  Risers  not  to  be  over  7  inches. 

The  Chimneys  are  to  be  of  well  burned  brick  and  to  receive  the  stove-pipes 
(if  stoves  are  used)  16  inches  below  the  ceilings.  Openings  for  pipes  to  be 
fitted  with  iron  thimbles  and  supplied  with  close-fitting  tin  covers. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


35 


Two  Ventilating  Flues  are  to  be  made,  one  on  each  side  of  the  room,  as 
directed,  and  one  in  the  recitation  room,  each  12  by  12  inches  inside,  made  of 
thoroughly  seasoned  pine,  l£  inch  thick,  joints  painted  with  white  lead  ;  to 
unite  in  the  garret  and  proceed  thence  to  the  ventilator  top  in  the  roof,  which  is 
to  be  of  a  capacity  equal  to  that  of  all  the  flues  which  empty  into  it.  There  is 
to  be  a  register  near  the  floor  and  one  just  underneath  the  ceiling  in  each  flue. 
The  openings  are  to  be  fitted  in  such  manner  that  they  may  be  readily  closed  at 
pleasure. 

Plastering,  Painting,  and  Wainscoting. — (See  specifications,  j[  70.) 

Privies. — (See  91.) 

57.  In  erecting  buildings  for  more  than  one  school  we  have  the  choice  of  ex¬ 
tending  our  plans  over  more  space  on  the  ground,  or  erecting  houses  two  or 
more  stories  high.  There  are  many  reasons  in  favor  of  one-story  buildings. 
The  pupils  of  different  departments  are  kept  more  distinct  in  going  to  and  from 
their  rooms.  This  promotes  quiet  and  order.  Their  yards  may  be  separate. 
The  noise  of  upper  rooms  is  avoided,  and  the  collisions  and  confusion  which 
are  liable  to  occur  where  large  numbers  are  congregated  under  the  same  roof 
and  go  out  to  play  in  the  same  yards  are  prevented.  The  difficulties  of 
lighting,  heating,  and  ventilating  large  buildings  are  much  greater  than  in 
smaller  ones.  It  is,  indeed,  very  rare  to  find  a  school  building  well  ventilated 
which  accommodates  five  hundred  or  a  thousand  pupils. 

The  plans  hereafter  given  are  intended  to  apply  to  this  class  of  buildings. 
They  are  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  most  of  the  objections  noted. 

58.  Vaux,in  his  admirable  work 
on  Villas  and  Cottages,  gives  us  the 
accompanying  design  fora  school¬ 
building,  and  speaks  as  follows  on 
the  improvement  of  their  style  of 
architecture : 

“  Even  the  school  itself,  in  which 
the  earliest  and  most  active  germs 
of  progressive  thought  are  com¬ 
menced,  is  almost  universally  a 
naked,  shabby  structure,  without 
a  tiee  or  a  shrub  near  it,  and  is 
Fig.  12.  Vaux  s  Design  for  School-house.  remarkable  chiefly  for  an  air  of 
coarse  neglect  that  pervades  its  whole  aspect.  The  improvement  of  the  school- 
house  is  probably  the  most  powerful  lever  that  cau  be  applied  toward  affecting 
a  change  for  the  better  in  the  appearance  of  rural  buildings  generally.  All  see 
it,  all  are  interested  in  it,  and  all  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  its  conduct  and 
appearance.  It  is  placed  under  the  control  of  the  leading  meu  in  each  place, 
and  it  might  easily  be  made  the  most  cheerful  and  soul- satisfying  building  in 
the  neighborhood,  instead  of,  as  at  present,  a  God-forsaken,  forlorn-looking  affair 
that  is  calculated  to  chill  the  heart  and  offend  the  eye  of  every  thoughtful 
beholder. 

“  The  cost  would  be  utterly  incommensurate  with  the  advantage  to  be  obtained. 
An  extra  hundred  dollars  at  first  starting  would  do  much.  The  roof  might 
then  have  a  good  projection  and  be  neatly  finished.  Some  sort  of  a  simple  porch 
might  be  added.  The  chimney  might  be  slightly  ornamented.  The  rest  would 
then  depend  on  proportion,  color,  and  surrounding  the  building  from  time  to  time 
with  shrubs,  creeping  vines,  and  young  trees.  These,  in  after  years,  would  offer  a 
welcome  shade  and  give  an  air  of  domestic  comfort  and  liberal  vitality  to  the 
whole  effect.  A  similar  result,  through  precisely  similar  means,  would  probably, 
in  course  of  time,  be  arrived  at  in  small  cottages  in  the  vicinity,  and  as  success 
would  be  cheap  and  invariable,  the  example  would  have  a  fair  chance  of  spread- 


36 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


mg.  Such  a  building  admits  of  endless  variety  of  design,  and  is  within  the 
reach  of  every  civilized  community.” 

If  a  community  have  a  poor  school-house  they  will  be  almost  sure  to  have  a 
poor  school.  If  they  would  have  a  better  school  they  must  provide  a  better 
house.  The  expense  may  excite  opposition  for  a  time,  but  it  will  not  be  long  be¬ 
fore  those  who  now  despise  the  school  will  begin  to  honor  it,  and  those  who  hate 
it  and  turn  from  it  in  disgust  will  learn  to  love  and  cherish  it. 


Explanation  of  cut. — A  A,  school-rooms  for  56  pupils  each ;  size  of  rooms, 
29  by  29  feet ;  outside  aisles,  3J  feet ;  inside  aisles,  2  feet ;  front  and  rear  aisles 
each,  3  feet;  E  E,  boys’  ante-rooms,  each  8  by  7  feet;  D  D,  girls’  ante-rooms, 
each  S  by  7  feet;  C,  teachers’  room,  12  by  12  feet;  outside  measurement,  72 
by  30  feet. 

59.  This  plan  is  the  result  of  combining  two  buildings  like  the  one  described 
in  52,  and  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  ante-rooms  are  retained — those  for  each 
school  being  separate;  but  the  two  teachers’  rooms  are  united  in  one,  forming  a 
pleasant  recitation  room  for  both  schools.  There  are  windows  in  each  of  the 
ante-rooms,  and  inside  windows  or  fan-lights  between  them  and  the  teachers’ 
room.  Through  these  air  and  light  can  be  admitted.  The  room  is  warmed  by 
a  small  stove.  One  chimney  standing  in  the  centre  may  be  made  to  answer  for 
all  the  stoves.  Should  fireplaces  be  used  there  would  also  be  a  chimney  at  each 
end  for  them. 

This  building  is  of  the  same  general  construction  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The 
ground  plan  is  eight  feet  shorter  than  twice  the  length  of  that  design.  The 
building  materials  may  be  easily  estimated.  The  siding  for  the  two  ends  is 
saved  ;  also  a  section  of  both  sides  eight  feet  wide,  and  of  the  roof  fourteen  feet. 
When  the  size  and  situation  of  the  lot  favors,  the  house  may  be  set  end  to  the 
street,  to  give  separate  yards  for  the  boys  and  girls. 

As  a  matter  of  economy,  and  perhaps  convenience,  the  outer  walls,  enclosing 
the  ante-rooms  D  D  and  E  E,  may  be  omitted.  The  spaces  may  stand  as  open 
porches,  or  be  enclosed  with  a  balustrade.  Hooks  or  strong  wooden  pegs  may  be 
put  up  on  strips  within  the  recess  for  the  hats  and  shawls.  It  would  also  be  ad¬ 
visable  to  divide  the  area  by  a  partition  of  open  lattice-work.  Then  each  school 
would  have  its  ante-room  separate ;  otherwise  there  would  be  likely  to  arise 
some  annoyance  by  the  meml  ers  of  one  school  interfering  with  the  articles 
which  belong  to  the  other. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


37 


60.  Since  it  is  a  common  practice  to  buy  the  cloors,  windows,  &c.,  in  the 
markets,  we  have  added  for  information  a  table  of  dimensions  of  ready-made 
sashes,  blinds,  and  doors  : 


Sasii  for  Windows  (twelve 

LIGHTED.) 

Blinds. 

Doors. 

Size  of  glass. 

Dimensions. 

Style. 

Dimensions. 

ft.  in.  ft.  in. 

If  in : 

ft.  in.  ft.  in. 

7  by  9 

2  1  by  3  6 

7  by  9 

6  panels  0  G 

2  0  by  6  G 

8  by  10 

2  4  by  3  10 

8  by  10 

6  panels  0  G 

2  2  by  6  6 

8  by  12 

2  4  by  4  6 

9  by  12 

6  panels  0  G 

2  4  by  6  6 

9  by  1 1 

2  7  by  4  2 

9  by  13 

6  panels  O  G 

2  6  by  C  6 

9  by  12 

2  7  by  4  6 

9  by  14 

6  panels  0  G 

2  8  by  6  6 

9  by  13 

2  7  by  4  10 

9  by  15 

6  panels  0  G 

2  0  by  C  8 

9  by  14 

2  7  by  5  2 

10  by  12 

6  panels  0  G 

2  2  by  6  8 

9  by  15 

2  7  by  5  6 

10  by  13 

6  panels  0  G 

2  4  by  C  8 

10  by  12 

2  10  by  4  6 

10  by  14 

6  panels  O  G 

2  6  by  6  8 

10  by  13 

2  10  by  4  10 

10  by  15 

6  panels  0  G 

2  8  by  6  8 

10  by  14 

2  10  by  5  2 

10  by  16 

1  £  in  : 

10  by  15 

2  10  by  5  6 

6  panels  0  G 

2  6  by  6  6 

10  by  16 

2  10  by  5  10 

6  panels  0  G 

2  8  by  6  8 

10  by  17 

2  10  by  6  2 

6  panels  0  G 

2  8  by  6  10 

10  by  18 

2  10  by  6  6 

6  panels  0  G 

2  10  by  6  10 

6  panels  0  G 

2  10  by  7  0 

6  panels  O  G 

3  0  by  7  0 

If  in  : 

Moulded  one  side, 

2  6  by  6  6 

raised  panels  on 

2  8  by  6  6 

other. 

2  8  by  6  8 

2  6  by  6  8 

Fig.  14.  Plan  for  Village  School. 


38 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


61.  By  adopting  a  different  arrangement  of  the  rooms,  as  shown  in  the  above 
ground  plan,  we  give  an  opportunity  for  the  architect  to  display  much  taste, 
and  construct  a  building  that  will  be  an  ornament  to  any  village  or  neighbor¬ 
hood. 

Explanation  of  cut. — A  and  B,  school-rooms,  29  by  27j-  feet;  C,  recitation 
room,  13  by  8  feet;  E  E,  girls’  ante-rooms,  7  by  7  feet,  opening  from  F,  porch, 
13  by  8  feet ;  D  D,  boys’  ante-rooms,  7  by  7  feet,  opening  from  G  G,  porches, 
7  by  5  feet;  size  of  building  on  the  ground,  56  by  37j  feet. 

When  the  schools  do  not  require  the  room  C  for  purposes  of  recitation,  it 
might  be  made  a  retiring  room  for  those  who  wish  to  study  when  the  rest  are 
at  play.  But  the  school-room  should  not  be  a  place  for  noise  and  confusion  at 
any  time. 


Fig.  15.  Front  elevation  for  Village  School. 


The  principal  object  of  this  design  is  to  present  a  finer  style  of  external  finish. 
Those  who  to-day  may  have  all  they  can  do  to  provide  themselves  and  their 
families  with  the  necessaries  of  life  will  soon  have  amassed  wealth,  and  will  wish 
to  expend  something  on  the  decorations  of  their  school- houses.  The  ground 
plan  includes  essentially  the  same  advantages  as  those  of  the  preceding,  though 
differently  arranged.  The  arcade  or  recess  F  between  the  ante-rooms,  the  stoop 
at  either  end,  and  the  ante-rooms  themselves  might  have  been  provided  for  under 
a  plain  lean-to  roof.  The  building  would  then  have  looked  more  like  a  stable 
than  a  hall  of  learning.  The  tower  is  for  a  bell.  One  weighing  about  two 
hundred  pounds  would  summon  the  children  of  the  village  at  the  hour  of  school, 
and  secure  promptitude  in  their  attendance. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


39 


The  mechanic  will  get  a  clearer  view  of  the  design  of  the  building  from  the 
two  elevations  than  from  an  elevation  in  perspective.  From  these  he  may  draw 
enlarged  working  plans.  The  ground  plan  shows  two  fireplaces,  requiring  for 
each  a  chimney.  In  case  stoves  are  used  one  chimney  with  separate  flues  may 
suffice.  It  might  stand  in  the  teacher’s  or  recitation  room,  which  may  be  en¬ 
larged,  and  perhaps  should  be,  to  about  20  by  15  feet. 

The  directions  for  tinning  under  design  No.  1,  for  Normal  school,  apply  to 
tinning  the  valleys  of  the  roof  of  this  house.  The  general  construction  is  simple, 
and  scarcely  needs  further  specifications. 

The  amount  of  materials  required  for  this  building  will  not  vary  much  in  total 
cost  from  that  of  the  last  preceding  plan.  It  will  take  a  few  more  shingles,  and 
will  on  the  whole  be  rather  more  expensive.  But  how  much  more  beautiful  is 
its  appearance. 

The  work  of  education  is  not  limited  to  teaching  to  read,  write,  and  cipher, 
nor  to  the  pursuit  of  higher  branches  of  literature  alone.  It  descends  to  every¬ 
thing  with  which  we  have  to  do,  to  our  houses  and  our  dress,  as  well  as  our 
scholastic  attainments  and  our  manners.  To  be  complete  it  must  be  gener¬ 
ous,  impressing  not  merely  a  few  individuals  with  its  blesssings,  but  reaching 
out  and  stamping  communities  and  States  with  its  benign  influence. 


40 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Fig.  17.  Ground  plan  of  two-story  School  Building. 

62.  The  cut  represents  the  ground  plan  of  a  two-story  building.  The  two 
floors  have  a  similar  arrangement  of  desks  and  seats  when  both  are  needed  for 
school  purposes. 

A,  school-room,  30J  by  29  feet;  B,  teacher’s  room,  15  by  9  feet;  0,  girls’ 
ante-room,  14  by  9  feet;  D,  boys’  ante-room,  14  by  9  feet;  G,  girls’  portico,  15 
by  8  feet ;  E,  boys’  stairway,  width,  4  feet ;  P,  girls’  stairway,  width,  4  feet  ; 
width  of  main  part,  30  feet;  total  length,  50  feet;  ceilings,  14  feet. 

The  arrangement  of  desks  is  for  fifty-six  pupils  to  each  room.  In  front  of  the 
desks,  next  to  the  teacher’s  platform,  is  a  bench  for  classes  during  recitations. 
The  chief  alteration  in  size  is  the  addition  of  four  feet  to  either  side  at  the  front 
to  give  room  for  stairs,  which  also  compels  an  addition  to  the  length  of  about 
ten  feet.  The  stairway  and  teacher’s  room  are  lighted  by  windows  in  the  front, 
which  are  so  constructed  as  to  add  to  the  architectural  effect.  The  portico  G 
is  a  pleasant  waiting  place  for  the  girls  who  may  arrive  earlier  than  the  school 
hour,  and  at  the  recess  on  stormy  days  when  it  is  not  fitting  for  them  to  play 
out  of  doors. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


41 


The  plan  is  intended  to  meet  a  large  class  of  cases  where  both  a  chapel  and 
school  are  wanted  in  the  same  building.  One  flight  of  stairs 
is  changed  so  that  the  recess  for  the  girls  is  also  the  platform 
from  which  the  stairs  ascend.  The  entrances  at  I  L  and  H  are 
convenient  for  the  audience. 

In  seating  a  chapel  or  an  assembly  hall  the  space  allowed  for 
a  bench  or  slip  is  2  feet  10  inches,  and  for  each  adult  on  a 
seat  18  inches. 

When  a  tower  or  belfry  is  wanted,  one  of  the  projections 
for  a  stairway  may  be  carried  up  for  that  purpose.  The  acc  m- 
panying  design,  by  Vaux,  is  suggestive.  It  may  conceal  a  ven¬ 
tilator  top  if  desired. 


Fig.  19.  Belfry. 


Bill  of  materials  and  work  for  school-house , 

ceiling  14  feet. 


50  by  30  feet ;  2  stories  high  ; 

Feet. 


Frame,  2  by  6  inches,  5,600  feet  long .  5,  600 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches,  200  feet  long .  800 

Plates,  3  by  6  inches,  200  feet  long .  300 

Girders,  1A  by  5  inches,  200  feet  long .  125 

Floor  timbers,  50  pieces,  3  by  12  inches,  30  feet  long .  4,  500 

Floor  timbers,  28  pieces,  3  by  12  inches,  38  feet  long .  3,  192 

Cords,  roof,  2  pieces,  2  by  3  inches,  30  feet  long .  30 

Cords,  roof,  1  piece,  8  by  8  inches,  38  feet  long .  204 

Rafters,  4  pieces,  6  by  8  inches,  20  feet  long .  320 

Rafters,  2  pieces,  6  by  8  inches,  24  feet  long .  192 

Rafters,  3  by  6  inches,  1,000  feet  long .  1,  500 

Purlins,  6  by  6  inches,  300  feet  long .  900 

Bearing  beams,  2  pieces,  8  by  12  inches,  50  feet  long .  800 

Partitions,  4  by  3  inches,  1,700  feet  long .  1,  700 

Flooring,  surface  measure,  3,100  +  4 .  3,  875 

Siding,  surface  measure,  5,600  +  ^ .  7,000 

Roof  boards .  3,000 

Boards  for  cornice,  base,  stairs,  &c .  4,  000 


TOWER. 


Timber,  feet .  2,  000 

Plank  and  boards .  2,  000 

Spikes  and  nails,  kegs .  2 

Carpenter’s  work,  days .  30 


42 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


School-rooms,  each  30£  by 

29  feet ;  A  and  B,  ante-rooms, 
17  by  13  feet;  0  0,  closets 
for  hats,  &c.,  8  by  3£  feet ; 
E,  recitation  room,  17  by  10 
feet;  size  of  building,  80  by 

30  feet;  projections  for  the 
stairways,  17  by  6  feet ;  ceil¬ 
ings,  14  feet. 

64.  After  what  has  already 
been  said  in  the  description 
of  plans  no  further  comments 
are  needed  respecting  the 
present  design.  It  would 
ajmaiawinM.  eeesess|  suggest  itself  to  any  one  ac- 

1  I  quainted  with  school  manage- 

I  I  ment  that  the  doorslo  the  re- 

•  H  citationroom  should  be  placed 

so  as  to  be  entered  directly 
from  the  school-room  door  in¬ 
stead  of  the  teacher’s  plat¬ 
form.  The  closets  will  be 
separated  from  the  halls  by 
low  plank  partitions,  not  over 
seven  feet  in  height.  The  re¬ 
citation  rooms  will  be  lighted 
and  ventilated  by  fan-win¬ 
dows  placed  above  these  par¬ 
titions. 

This  design  is  well  adapted 
for  a  large  village  school.  It 
would  require  four  teachers — 
one  to  each  of  the  rooms. 
When  the  number  should  in¬ 
crease  beyond  the  capacity  of 
the  building,  some  of  the  ad¬ 
vanced  pupils  might  study 
mostly  at  home,  and  attend 
recitations  in  the  recitation 
rooms.  When  tilled  it  would 
accommodate  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  pupils.  With  this  number  an  ad¬ 
vance  might  be  made  in  grading. 

Where  there  are  twice  this  number  of  pupils  in  a  village  or  thickly  settled 
rural  district,  many  prefer  to  have  smaller  buildings  for  the  primary  pupils,  lo¬ 
cated  so  as  to  gather  in  enough  for  a  school  of  that  grade.  Then  collect  all  the 
higher  grades  into  the  principal  building,  which  would  be  the  high  school,  and 
should  be  centrally  located. 

A  side  elevation,  Fig.  21,  shows  the  style  of  frame  proposed  for  this  building. 

65.  The  balloon  frame  is  a  favorite  style  of  constructing  medium-sized 
buildings  in  the  West.  It  has  of  late  grown  in  favor  in  the  East.  It  is  less 
expensive  than  the  old  style  of  posts  and  beams,  and  is  rapidly  erected.  The 
frame  is  composed  of  2  by  5  joists  in  the  smaller  buildings  ;  in  the  larger,  3  by 
6  joists.  Nails  and  spikes  are  used  instead  of  mortise  and  tenon.  By  a  judi¬ 
cious  use  of  them  every  part  of  the  frame  may  be  fastened  firmly  together. 
After  the  sheathing  is  on  and  well  nailed,  a  building  of  this  kind  would  blow 
over  bodily  before  its  sides  would  be  crushed  in  or  “  blown  down.” 


Fig.  20.  Ground  plan  for  Union  School. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


43 


Directions. — Frame  the  sills  and  door  timbers  the  same  as  in  ft  49.  Before 
laying  the  door  timbers  determine  on  the  distance  between  the  studs  and  place 
them  to  correspond.  They  should  be  either  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  apart  from 
centre  to  centre,  in  order  that  the  lath,  which  is  four  feet  long,  may  break  joints 
on  the  joists. 

Some  builders  mortise  the  sills  to  receive  the  feet  of  the  studs.  This  is  a 
mistake.  It  is  better  only  to  nail  them.  Cut  the  studs  to  the  length  required 
before  raising  them.  No  beam  is  used  for  a  girder.  Instead  of  this  an  inch 
board,  six  or  eight  inches  wide,  is  taken.  When  3  by  4  studs  are  used  gain  them 
half  an  inch  ;  2  by  6  or  3  by  6  joists  are  gained  an  inch  for  the  board  which 
it  is  to  serve  as  a  girder.  When  this  is  done,  set  up  a  stud  by  the  side  of  each 
door  timber.  Toe  them  down  to  the  sills  and  spike  them  to  the  door  timbers. 
Plumb  and  stay  them. 

A  corner  post  is  formed  by  spiking  together  two,  or  if  the  size  require,  three, 
of  the  joists. 

The  ends  of  the  buildings  are  set  up  the  same  way,  except  that  the  girders 
are  gained  in  as  high  as  the  top  instead  of  the  bottom  of  the  door  timbers. 

The  next  thing  is  to  set  the  partitions,  which  run  crosswise  of  the  door  timbers. 
Those  that  run  with  the  door  timbers  may  be  put  up  after  the  timbers  are  in 
place.  Lay  a  door  timber  against  each  stud  and  spike  it  to  the  stud.  Let  their 
ends  go  out  dush  with  the  outside  of  the  frame. 

It  is  much  better  to  have  the  stuff  for  the  studs  sawed  to  order  their  full  length 
than  to  be  obliged  to  splice  tliem  But  if  some  are  too  short,  square  the  ends 
to  be  spliced,  stay  the  lower  portion,  and  set  the  upper  joist  on  it  without  regard 
to  length,  and  stay  it.  After  the  timbers  for  the  second  door  are  laid,  cut  a  strip 
of  board  the  right  length  for  a  measure  to  cut  the  studs  by.  Mark  each  one 
separately  by  this  and  saw  to  the  line.  This  is  a  better  way  than  using  a  chalk 
line,  because  the  line  sags.  In  splicing  the  joist,  again  we  say,  square  the  ends 
of  both,  so  that  each  shall  dt  exactly  to  the  other.  To  make  the  joint  perfectly 
secure  take  two  strips  of  boards  three  or  four  feet  long  and  of  even  widths  with 
the  stud ;  nail  one  on  each  of  the  two  sides  in  line  with  the  row  of  studs. 

This  caution  will  naturally  suggest  itself:  When  short  studs  must  be  used 
they  should  not  be  placed  all  together,  but  should  be  separated  by  one  or  more 
full-length  timbers. 

In  setting  up  the  studs  and  in  sheathing  no  regard  is  paid  to  the  openings  for 
doors  and  windows.  This  is  taken  into  consideration  at  a  later  period  of  the  work, 
before  siding  up.  They  may  then  be  sawed  out  wherever  the  plan  requires. 

When  the  frame  is  not  to  be  sheathed  before  the  siding  is  put  on,  it  may  be 
braced  in  a  very  simple  and  effective  manner.  The  direction  of  braces  is  shown 
in  the  engraving.  Also  the  method  of  framing  a  tower.  The  design,  Fig.  19, 
is  preferred  to  the  one  here  given.  The  roof  is  rather  too  flat  for  shingles.  The 
width  of  building  is  thirty  feet.  The  pitch  of  roof  should  be  seven  and  a  half 
to  ten  feet. 


44 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


methods. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  minutely  into  the  description  of  all  the  larger  plans 
which  follow.  Their  construction  requires  enlarged  drawings,  in  detail,  by  a 
skilful  architect  who  is  acquainted  with  the  erection  of  this  class  of  buildings. 
Attention  is  directed  to  the  comprehensive  specifications  given  in  70  for  a  large 
and  expensive  building.  The  combination  of  several  school-rooms  in  one  edifice 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


45 


admits  of  a  great  variety  of  arrangements,  and  much  skill  may  be  displayed  in 
their  design.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  a  leading  feature  should 

always  be,  in  hot  climates,  to  expose  the  several  rooms  to  the  free  passage  of 

prevailing  air  currents.  For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  they  ought  not  to  be 
built  in  solid  squares,  as  is  commonly  practiced  in  the  North. 

Bill  of  materials  and  work  for  u  two-story  balloon-framed  building  SO  by  30 
feet  ;  ceilings,  14  feet;  'projection  of  roof,  3  feet  ;  pitch,  1  h  feet. 

Feet. 

Frame,  2  by  6  inches,  8,050  feet  long .  8,  050 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches,  254  feet  long .  1,  016 

Plates,  3  by  6  inches,  254  feet  long .  3S1 

Girders,  by  5  inches,  160  feet  long .  90 

Floor  timbers,  (96  pieces,)  3  by  10  inches,  30  feet  long .  7,  200 

Floor  timbers,  (30  pieces,)  3  by  10  inches,  27  feet  long .  2,  0°5 

Floor  timbers,  (30  pieces,)  3  by  10  inches,  17  feet  long .  1,  275 

Ceiling  joists,  (28  pieces,)  3  by  8  inches,  30  feet  long .  1,  680 

Rafters,  (58  pieces,)  3  by  8  inches,  20  feet  long .  2,  320 

Diagonal  rafters,  (8  pieces,)  4  by  8  inches,  25  feet  long .  532 

Girder,  (1  piece,)  8  by  10  inches,  80  feet  long .  532 

Girder,  (2  pieces,)  8  by  10  inches,  32  feet  long .  426 

Partitions,  3  by  4  inches,  2,400  feet  long .  2,  400 

Roof-boards .  3,500 

Flooring,  (surface  measure,)  4,800  (4  added,  1,200) .  6,  000 

Siding .  8,  000 

Wainscoting .  2,  700 

Finishing  stuff .  4,  000 


Total .  52,127 

Shingles .  30,  000 

Lath .  30,  000 

Windows,  10  by  16  inches,  24  lights .  24 

Windows,  9  by  16  inches,  18  lights .  8 

Window  blinds,  pairs .  - .  32 

Doors,  3  by  7  feet .  12 

Doors,  2  feet  10  inches  by  7  feet .  8 

Doors,  double,  5  feet  4  inches  by  9  feet .  2 

Nails,  kegs .  20 

Bricks,  (8  by  4  by  2)  .  4,000 

*  Plastering,  yards .  1,  960 

Carpenters’  work,  days .  700 

Masons’  work,  days .  100 


*  No  allowance  for  blackboards  and  wainscoting  in  amount  given. 


46 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


47 


.  66>  Tt  1S  difficult  to  group  a  large  number  of  rooms  together  in  the  same  build- 
mg  without  obstructing  the  free  circulation  of  air  through  some  of  them  The 
cut  (T  ig.  22)  shows  a  combination  of  three  school-rooms,  with  principal’s  office  and 
a  large  recitation  room  for  the  advanced  school  adjoining.  The  yards  for  bovs 
and  girls  are  on  either  side  of  the  house.  They  have  separate  stairways 
The  stairs  are  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  hall  to  allow  a  full  passage  of  air  on 
either  side.  The  halls  afford  ample  room  for  closets  for  cloaks  and°hats  The 
second  floor  has  two  school-rooms  identical  with  those  in  the  front  on  the  ground 
plan.  A  chapel  is  over  the  back  hall,  the  large  school-room,  and  the  side  rooms, 
l  ne  seats  are  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  represented  in  Fig  28.  There 
may  be  an  upright  plank  partition  seven  feet  high  across  the  rear  end  of  the 
chapel,  corresponding  to  the  partition  on  the  ground  floor  directly  underneath  it. 

07.  We  have  here  (I  ig.  23)  an  approved  plan  for  a  small  Normal  School.  The 
rooms  A  and  B  are  separated  by  folding-doors, and  maybe  used  for  the  experimen- 
ta  depaitmentof  the  school ;  G,  halls  leading  to  the  rooms  ;  F  F,  principal’s  office 
and  recitation  room  ;  H,  front  hall  with  stairs  leading  to  second  floor  ;  C  and  D 

manner00 The  1  he fro.nt,rooms  oyer  0  and  D  are  planned  in  the  same 
Fit  os'  T  remai“der  of.  thy  second  story  is  devoted  to  a  chapel,  as  shown  in 
g.  28.  1  he  second  floor  is  also  reached  by  outside  stairs  on  the  piazzas.  A 

biai}  may  be  arranged  for  in  the  front  part  of  the  upper  hall  between  the 
school-rooms,  and  light  admitted  to  the  back  hall  through  glass  windows  in  the 


48 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


separating  partition.  All  the  rooms  are  arranged  with  a  regard  to  the  greatest 
amount  of  air,  and  at  the  same  time  are  shielded  from  the  excess  of  light  and  heat. 

Figures  22,  23,  and  26  are  modifications  of  the  same  general  outline. 

The  cultivated  eye  will  detect  in  this  design  much  to  admire.  It  was  planned 
for  site  on  a  battle-field,  looking  southward  up  a  magnificent  river.  All  the 
pupils  when  at  their  desks  will  face  the  north.  The  piazza  in  front  will  shield 
the  building  from  the  severest  rays  of  the  sun.  The  attic  may  be  reserved  for 
the  janitor  and  for  enlarging  the  school.  The  tower  is  to  be  supplied  with  a  bell 
weighing  over  three  hundred  pounds. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  in  the  South  for  stairs  to  ascend  from  the 
piazza.  The  piazza  itself  is  one  of  the  much  needed  devices  as  a  protection 
against  the  heat,  and  there  is  no  strong  objection  against  the  above  arrangement. 
In  the  plans  proposed  it  saves  much  room  inside  the  house. 


The  side  elevation  represents  the  position  of  the  stairs  by  which  the  second 
story  is  reached  by  the  pupils.  A  landing  half-way  up  bi’eaks  the  continuous 
effort  of  rising,  and  is  therefore  an  advantage.  The  pupils  who  belong  in  the 
rooms  of  the  second  story  have  no  occasion  to  go  on  the  piazza  with  those  of  the 
first.  This  conduces  to  quietness  and  good  order  at  the  gathering  and  dismissal 
of  school.  In  some  of  the  large  cities  it  has  become  customary  to  use  the  attic 
for  one  of  two  purposes,  either  as  an  assembly  hall  or  for  a  play-room  for  girls 
in  bad  weather.  In  the  design  the  ceiling  would  admit  of  this  arrangement. 
A  few  more  windows  might  be  added. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


49 


68.  General  Remarks  on  Materials  and  Construction. — The  sills  are 
to  be  supported  by  piers  of  brick-work,  hard,  well-burned  brick,  nowhere  more 
than  10  feet  between  centres.  These  piers  to  be  20  inches  square  and  to  rest 
on  a  concrete  bed  10  inches  thick  and  3  feet  square. 

Frame. — The  sills  should  be  of  yellow  pine,  approximately  8  by  14  inches; 
the  corner  posts  8  by  12  inches ;  girts  4  by  14  iuches,  into  which  the  second 
and  third  story  joists  are  framed  ;  intermediate  posts,  4  by  8  inches  ;  studs,  3 
by  4  iuches  ;  rafters,  3  by  7  inches  ;  floor  joists,  3  by  12  inches.  The  veranda 
posts  should  be  about  10  inches  square,  corners  chamfered  ;  the  arched  braces 
6  inches  thick.  The  railing  to  be  5  by  6  inches  square,  upper  and  lower  rails 
with  2  inches  thick  pierced  filling  between. 

Sheathing  and  Floors. — The  outside  of  building  should  be  sheathed  with 
diagonal  sheathing  an  inch  and  a  fourth  thick,  well  nailed,  of  yellow  pine  plank  or 
similar  wood.  The  under  side  of  floors  should  be  furred  off  with  2  by  l£  inch 
strips  set  12  inches  between  centres  ready  for  lathing.  The  floors  should  be 
deadened  with  mortar  laid  on  boards,  cut  in  between  the  joists,  resting  on  fillets 
nailed  to  the  side  of  the  joists. 

The  Roof  should  be  sheathed  on  the  flat  part  with  1 J  plank  laid  as  close  as 
possible,  tongued  and  grooved  if  it  can  be  done.  The  flat  should  be  tinned  with 
good  roofing  tin.  This  should  run  over  the  edges  of  flat,  and  lap  S  inches  on 
the  inclined  sides.  The  veranda  roof  and  deck  of  bell  turret  are  finished  in 
the  same  manner.  The  inclined  sides  of  roof  should  be  shingled  ou  shingle- 
strips  2$  inches  wide,  set  as  far  between  centres  as  the  shingles  show  to  the 
weather.  The  hips  and  valleys  are  to  be  covered  with  tin  at  least  18  inches 
wide,  turned  over  a  strip  and  under  the  shingles.  Around  the  chimneys  and  dor¬ 
mers  there  should  also  be  careful  flashing.  A  gutter  is  to  be  formed  at  the  bottom 
of  tbe  pitched  roof,  and  to  have  false  bottoms  to  throw  water  leader.  Said 
gutter  to  be  lined  with  tin,  turned  up  at  least  a  foot  higher  than  the  top  line  of 
gutter  under  the  shingles.  There  should  be  six  3i  by  4  inch  tin  leaders  at 
angles  of  building  running  straight  to  the  ground. 

The  Windows  should  be  rising  sash,  except  in  those  of  the  assembly-room, 
which  should  be  casement  and  glazed  with  first  quality  American  sheet  glass. 

The  Stairs  to  second  story  should  have  twenty-five  risers  and  heavy  balus¬ 
trade,  continued  string  stairs. 

Doors  in  first  story  should  be  ten  feet  high  or  thereabouts,  and  lj£  inch 
thick,  except  sliding  door,  which  should  be  2J  inches  thick.  Outside  doors  2£ 
inches  thick. 

Painting. — The  binding  should  be  painted  a  quiet  gray  tint  for  the  body  of 
the  wall,  and  a  quiet  purplish  brown  for  the  trimmings,  and  sanded.  The 
shingles  and  tin  should  be  painted  slate  color. 

A  building  of  tliis  kind  should  be  erected  under  the  directions  of  an  accom¬ 
plished  architect. 

4  s  c 


50 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


69.  This  building  was  designed  for  a  situation  where  the  prevailing  winds 
were  from  the  south  and  blew  directly  off  the  ocean.  It  was  desirable  to  secure 
their  favoring  breath  through  each  of  the  rooms.  Hence  the  projection  of  the 
rooms  allowing  space  at  the  side  or  over  the  top  of  the  door  for  windows  or  fan¬ 
lights  to  admit  the  southerly  winds. 

The  rooms  C  and  D  are  seated  for  48  pupils  each,  at  single  desks.  They 
constitute  the  preparatory  department.  The  two  corresponding  rooms  on  the 
second  floor,  for  the  graduating  class,  are  of  the  same  size  and  seated  in  the  same 
manner.  The  four  rooms  A  E  and  B  E  are  for  the  Model  or  Experimental 
school,  in  which  the  graduating  class  will  practice  in  the  art  of  teaching  under 
the  instruction  of  an  accomplished  teacher.  The  rooms  are  for  forty  pupils 
each,  and  are  separated  by  folding-doors.  The  advantage  of  this  is  to  enable 
the  principal  instructor  to  give  general  exercises  to  two  of  these  schools  at  a 
time.  H  H  are  the  positions  for  hat  closets  for  the  boys,  and  0  C  for  the  cloak 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


51 


rooms  for  girls.  The  figures  denote  the  positions  of  the  chimneys  and  venti¬ 
lators.  V  V,  also,  are  for  ventilating  the  four  principal  school-rooms.  The  hall 
G  is  of  ample  width.  The  principal’s  office  is  lighted  through  the  glass  parti¬ 
tion  between  it  and  the  vestibule,  also  by  fan-lights  connecting  with  the  school¬ 
rooms.  The  front  windows  of  the  vestibule  are  not  shown  in  the  engraving. 
On  the  second  floor,  directly  over  the  vestibule,  is  a  library;  in  rear  of  that  the 
lady  teachers’  toilet.  The  building  is  calculated  for  three  hundred  and  fifty 
pupils. 


52 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


The  ground  plan  shows  the  general  form  of  the  building  and  the  side  eleva¬ 
tion,  the  ascent  by  the  stairs  from  the  ground,  &c.  Our  space  would  not  admit  of 
complete  illustration ;  but  the  specifications  which  follow  give  definite  descrip¬ 
tions  of  the  construction,  and  will  assist  in  a  full  understanding  of  the  entire 
plan.  The.  front  is  entirely  plain,  without  decoration  except  that  which  the 
veranda  and  projection  at  the  entrance  give.  Probably  a  little  more  attention 
to  artistic  effect  would  have  benefited  the  design  without  materially  increasing 
the  expense. 


wash-rooms,  supplied  with 


That  portion  of  the  sec¬ 
ond  story  over  the  Model 
School  rooms  and  the  hall 
G  is  arranged  with  settees 
to  accommodate  all  the 
pupils  of  the  school.  The 
platform  is  elevated  sev¬ 
eral  feet,  and  is  large 
enough  for  the  teachers 
to  occupy  during  morning 
exercises.  The  pupils 
from  the  lower  room  enter 
the  chapel  by  the  doors 
A  and  E  ;  those  from 
the  upper,  through  the 
other  doors,  B,  C,  and  D. 
(See  63  ) 

The  basement  is  open 
to  the  yard  by  the  arches 
between  the  piers.  It  is 
-  divided  by  a  wall  running 
lengthwise,  and  forms  a 
most  excellent  shelter  for 
the  pupils  from  the  hot 
sun  and  showers.  The 
from  the  cistern,  enable  the 


an  abundance  of  water 
teachers  to  enforce  cleanliness. 

The  specifications  which  follow  will  serve  not  only  as  a  guide  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  large  buildings,  but  they  contain  valuable  directions  applicable  to 
those  of  a  smaller  class,  whether  of  brick  or  wood. 


70.  Specification  of  the  work  and  material  for  erecting  a  brick  school-house ,  all 
to  be  finished  as  per  plans  and  this  specification,  in  every  part  complete. 

Dimensions. — The  building  in  front  to  be  sixty-seven  feet,  and  to  extend  back 
thirty-three  feet,  same  width.  Then  a  recess  of  ten  feet,  to  be  formed  on  each 
side,  making  the  rear  part  of  the  building  forty-seven  feet  wide  by  fifty-five  feet 
deep  ;  total  depth  of  eighty-eight  feet,  to  have  two  stories  and  basement.  The 
basement  to  be  eight  feet  from  the  top  of  the  ground  to  ceiling,  the  openings  to 
be  arched,  as  shown  on  plan.  The  first  story  to  be  thirteen  feet  from  floor  to 
ceiling,  and  the  second  story  to  be  fifteen  feet  in  the  clear  when  finished.  The 
roof  to  have  one  and  a  half  inch  to  the  foot  descent  from  centre  to  each  side. 
Put  up  a  belfry  on  roof,  as  shown  on  plans,  7  by  7  feet,  octagonal  form,  ten  feet 
in  height. 

Fences. — A  front  fence  to  be  put  up  the  whole  front  of  lot,  with  gateways  as 
marked  on  plan,  with  brick  posts  of  good,  sound,  hard-burned  brick  well  laid  in 
cement,  neatly  coped  with  Milestone,  four  inches  thick,  finely  axed.  Posts  to  be 
placed  about  eight  feet  from  centres,  and  to  be  eighteen  inches  square.  Also 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


53 


build  into  tlie  posts,  where  required,  strong  wrought-iron  eyes,  well  anchored  in 
the  posts,  to  hinge  the  gates.  Pickets  of  fence  to  be  two  inches  square.  Rails 
6  by  3  inches,  mortised  to  receive  the  pickets ;  all  to  be  smoothly  planed. 

A  board  fence  is  to  be  put  on  each  side  and  rear  of  lot ;  also  from  the  centre 
of  the  back  of  building  to  the  line  of  lot.  Posts  to  be  6  by  6  inches,  set  2  feet 
6  inches  in  the  ground.  Boards  to  be  one  and  a  quarter  inch  thick,  smoothly 
planed,  well  nailed  to  the  rails.  Said  fence  in  rear  and  on  sides  to  be  seven 
feet  high. 

Trenches  to  be  excavated  two  feet  below  ground*  under  all  walls,  four  feet 
in  width.  All  earth  excavated  from  trenches,  vaults,  &c.,  not  used  for  building 
purposes,  nor  required  for  grading,  to  be  carted  away  from  the  premises,  and  the 
whole  to  be  left  clean.  Also  all  dirt,  refuse,  and  rubbish  to  be  removed  from 
premises  when  the  work  is  completed. 

The  Foundations  are  to  be  laid  two  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  on  a 
bed  of  hard  yellow  pine  plank  four  feet  wide  and  four  inches  thick,  firmly  bedded 
and  levelled,  laid  close  joints  across  the  trench  in  the  best  manner  to  receive  the 
brick  walls.  Piers  to  be  of  hard-burned  brick,  laid  in  the  best  manner  to  sup¬ 
port  the  posts  of  platforms  and  stairs. 

Brick  Work. — The  walls  below  a  level  of  the  ground  to  be  three  feet  thick, 
well  laid  up  with  good,  sound,  hard  burnt  brick.  All  outside  work  to  be  of  the 
best  quality  hard-burned  gray  brick.  Walls  filled  with  good  hard-brown  brick. 
All  of  the  walls  to  be  eighteen  inches  thick  from  the  level  of  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  second  story*  floor  beams,  except  the  interior  wall  running  across  the 
front  part  of  the  building,  which  will  be  twelve  inches  thick  from  the  foun¬ 
dation  wall  to  top  of  first  story  floor.  All  the  residue  of  walls  to  be  twelve 
inches  thick,  carried  up  above  the  roof,  as  shown  on  the  plans.  All  flues  to  be 
carried  up  as  shown  on  plans,  neatly  pargetted  on  the  inside,  and  carried  up 
above  the  roof  to  a  suitable  height  and  coped.  All  brick  for  the  side  walls  to  be 
of  the  best  quality  of  hard-burned  brick,  well  laid  in  the  best  quality  of  lime 
and  sand  mortar,  above  ground  full  flush  joints  to  be  well  bound  every  fifth 
course.  The  outside  joints  to  be  struck  full  flush,  neat  joints.  Walls  to  be 
well  anchored  to  the  beams  with  iron  anchors  placed  about  six  feet  apart.  The 
rear  wall  to  be  carried  up  above  the  roof,  coped  with  bluestone  coping,  neatly 
pointed  with  cement ;  said  coping  to  be  put  on  after  the  tin  roofing  is  turned 
over  the  wall. 

Paving. — On  each  side  and  in  rear  of  building,  as  far  as  the  lot  extends,  the 
ground  is  to  be  paved  with  hard-burned  brick,  laid  herring  bone,  close  joints — 
none  to  be  laid  in  front,  except  on  the  entrance  and  the  side-walk  in  front  of 
the  lot. 

Gutters  to  be  formed  in  the  yard  of  suitable  sizes,  with  brick  laid  in  cement 
to  drain  the  water.  Put  up  bluestone  sills  and  lintels  to  all  the  windows,  and 
outside  doors  of  good,  sound  bluestone,  neatly  axed  ;  also  put  up  bluestone  steps 
and  platform  to  front  door  stoop.  Platform  to  be  two  feet  wide,  running  under 
the  door  sill  one  and  a  half  inch,  making  two  feet  one  and  a  half  inch  wide. 
Steps  to  be  eight  feet  in  length,  twelve  inches  wide,  laid  on  brick  foundation, 
arched,  as  shown  on  plan.  Put  up  on  each  side  of  said  stoop  a  neat  substantial 
iron  railing,  with  newels,  &c.,  complete. 

A  Cistern  to  be  built  in  rear  of  lot,  ten  by  fifteen  feet,  oval  form,  six  feet 
deep,  to  be  built  with  good,  sound  hard  brick  laid  in  cement,  and  plastered  with 
cement  out  and  inside;  12-inch  outside  walls,  with  4-inch  centre  walls,  properly 
prepared  to  filter  the  water  passing  from  one  side  to  the  other.  The  bottom  to 
be  laid  double  thick,  well  cemented,  the  top  to  be  neatly  arched,  and  to  have  a 
bluestone  neck  rabbeted  together,  the  arch  to  be  well  grouted  with  cement  on 
top,  and  the  whole  warranted  water-tight ;  also  place  a  piece  of  bluestone  in  the 
bottom  where  the  water  falls  into  it. 

*  In  smaller  buildings  the  walls  need  not  be  over  twelve  or  nine  inches  thick. 


54 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


Furring,  Lathing,  and  Plastering. — The  walls  to  be  furred  with  one  by 
two  inch  furring  strips,  nailed  on  w'all  strips  in  wall  twelve  inches  from  centres. 
Also,  the  ceilings  to  be  cross-furred  crosswise  of  beams,  twelve  inches  from 
centres,  except  the  ceilings  of  basement,  which  are  to  be  lathed  on  the  beams; 
and  all  to  be  lathed  with  If -inch  sawed  lath,  well  nailed,  and  plastered  with  two 
good  coats  of  the  best  quality  of  lime,  with  clean  long  hair  and  sharp  sand 
mortar  mixed  in  proper  proportions ;  and  the  whole  to  be  finished  with  one 
good  coat  of  white  hard  finish  mortar  put  on  in  the  best  manner,  complete  in 
every  part. 

Carpenters’  Work. — The  floor  beams  of  first  and  second  stories  to  be  3  by 
14  inches  of  good  sound  timber,  free  from  any  objectionable  defects,  placed  on 
the  walls  as  they  progress,  not  over  fifteen  inches  from  centres,  with  two  rows 
of  cross-bridging  on  each  side  of  partition,  and  to  have  anchor  strips  let  in  three 
beams  from  wall  opposite  each  pier.  All  the  floor  beams,  which  are  anchored 
in  the  wall,  to  lap  over  the  partitions,  and  be  spiked  firmly  together.  Beams 
under  roof  to  be  3  by  10  inches,  laid  not  over  eighteen  inches  apart,  framed  into 
a  centre,  girded  8  by  10  inches,  running  the  length  of  the  rear  part  of  said  build¬ 
ing,  supported  by  three  neat  iron  columns,  five  inches  diameter,  equally  divided 
in  assembly  room.  The  rafters  to  be  3  by  8  inches,  placed  and  footed  on  the 
end  of  each  beam,  bolted  together  with  one-incli  bolts  with  large  heads,  screws, 
and  nuts,  and  large  washer-plates,  supported  and  braced,  as  shown  on  plans, 
with  iron  bolts  one  inch  thick  securing  each  rafter  to  the  beam,  as  shown.  All 
the  above  timbers  to  be  of  good,  sound  lumber,  free  from  any  objectionable  de¬ 
fects,  framed  in  every  part  in  the  best  manner,  neatly  levelled  on  the  walls. 
Furnish  aud  put  up  all  centres,  wall  strips,  wall  blocks,  wooden  lintels,  and  loose 
furring  required  by  the  masons. 

The  stoop  platforms  are  to  be  framed,  one  with  a  front  plate  4  by  9  inches 
and  cross-ties  placed  about  6  feet  apart,  4  by  8  inches,  and  filled  in  with  3  by  8 
inch  beams,  placed  2  feet  from  centre.  The  cross-ties  are  to  run  in  the  wall  4 
inches,  and  be  well  fastened  with  iron  hold-fasts  built  in  the  walls  as  they  are 
put  up.  Said  platforms  to  be  supported  on  posts  8  by  8  inches  with  neat  smooth 
caps  and  bases  as  shown. 

Window  Frames  and  Sashes. — All  window  frames,  as  shown  on  plans,  are 
to  be  box  frames  with  lf-inch  pulley  stiles,  f-inch  outside  and  inside  casing, 
If  by  If  inch  hanging  stiles,  If  rabbeted  sills  ;  all  to  be  fitted  with  stop  and 
parting  strips  and  If -inch  iron,  best  quality,  frame  pulleys,  4  pulleys  to  each 
frame.  All  are  to  be  put  together  in  the  best  manner,  placed  in  the  wall  three 
feet  from  floor.  Sashes  to  be  If  inch  thick,  12  by  15  inch  glass,  glazed  with 
thick  German  glass,  free  from  burns,  stains,  or  other  defects,  well  bradded  and 
puttied.  All  are  to  be  double-hung  with  best  quality  of  sash  c  rd  and  cast-iron 
weights,  properly  balanced  and  neatly  fitted  to  the  frames.  The  windows  are 
to  be  trimmed  inside,  also  all  inside  doors,  with  a  f-inch  returned  bead  casing, 
lf-inch  oge  back-moulding,  aud  1-inch  back  bands,  6  inches  wide  when  finished  ; 
all  to  be  neatly  fitted  to  the  walls.  All  doors  to  have  lf-inch  jambs  rabbeted 
to  receive  the  doors.  The  jambs  to  be  well  blocked  to  receive  the  screws  of 
butts  and  nosings.  Put  up  inside  all  around  the  walls  and  partitions  f-inch 
narrow  tongued  and  grooved  boards  for  wainscoting,  not  over  5  inches  wide, 
placed  upright  and  finished  with  a  neat  If -inch  nosing  and  core  cap  on  top  of 
the  same,  (all  the  partitions  to  be  of  3  by  6  studs  12  inches  apart,  properly 
braced  to  carry  posts  in  assembly  hall  in  second  story.)  Window  trimmings  to 
be  finished  on  said  cap,  and  all  around  the  bottom  of  wainscoting  running  all 
around  the  various  rooms  and  halls  put  down  f-inch  base  with  oval  moulding,  8 
inches  wide,  neatly  fitted  to  the  floor. 

Venetian  Blinds  to  be  placed  inside  of  each  window  If  inch  thick,  made 
flatwise,  to  be  cut  in  centre  and  back  flap  and  hung  with  suitable  sized  butts, 
and  fastened  in  the  centre  with  hook,  latch,  and  staples  in  the  usual  manner. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


55 


Sliding  Doors. — In  the  first  story  a  glass  sliding  partition  is  to  be  put  across 
both  rooms  in  the  rear  part,  as  marked  on  plans,  to  be  divided  in  four  sections  in 
width  in  each  room.  Sliding  doors  to  be  nine  feet  high,  and  above  the  doors  to 
ceilings  is  to  be  filled  in  with  sashes.  All  to  be  put  up  with  suitable  frames,  &c. 
Doors  to  slide  on  brass  ways  screwed  down  to  floor,  and  8-inch  brass  sheaves  let 
in  the  bottom  of  the  doors  in  the  usual  manner.  Doors  to  be  li  inch  thick, 
panelled  and  moulded  below  the  sashes  about  three  feet  iu  height  from  floors. 
AH  the  above  to  be  put  up  in  the  best  approved  manner  and  complete  in  every 
part. 

Doors  and  Fan-lights. — The  outside  doors  are  to  be  2  inches  thick,  double 
fold,  as  shown  on  plans,  5  fret  wide,  8  feet  6  inches  in  height,  with  cast-iron 
filigree  panels  above  and  small  lj-irich  sashes  inside,  hung  with  3  by  3  inch  butts, 
and  fastened  with  buttons.  Also,  to  have  circular  fan-lights  on  front  and  square 
fan-lights  on  side  doors,  as  shown.  Strong  and  suitable  jambs  to  be  fastened  to 
the  walls,  trimmed  inside  same  as  inside  door  and  window  trimmings,  and  with 
a  large  moulding  outside.  Said  doors  are  to  be  moulded  on  the  iower  panels 
with  large  raised  mouldings,  and  on  inside  same  as  other  inside  doors. 

Sash-doors  are  to  be  put  in  the  principal’s  office  and  in  teacher’s  room  in  second 
story;  also  two  sashes  in  each  side  partition  in  these  rooms  for  borrowed  lights. 
Sashes  to  be  7  feet  6  inches  from  floor ;  single  sash  hung  same  as  fan-lights. 
Glass,  12  by  14,  6  lights. 

Inside  doors  to  be  double  faced,  four  panelled,  and  moulded  with  neat  flush 
mouldings.  All  to  have  fan-lights  above,  two  lights  high  and  hung  on  pivots 
in  centre.  All  doors  to  be  hung  with  strong,  suitable  sized  butt  —three  butts  to 
each  door — to  be  fastened  with  suitable  sized  locks  and  bolts.  All  to  be  of  the 
best  quality,  properly  put  on  where  required.  Glass  for  partitions  and  head¬ 
lights  to  be  the  same  as  the  windows,  put  in  in  the  best  manner,  complete  in 
every  part. 

Stairs. — The  stairs  to  be  put  up  on  each  side  of  the  said  building  and  in 
rear,  as  shown.  Platforms,  10  feet  wide,  to  extend  from  recess  to  rear  of  build¬ 
ing  ;  (upper  platform  ou  outside  stairs  on  each  side  of  building  to  be  covered 
with  a  porch,  supported  by  three  columns  neatly  finished,  with  roof  tinned,  as 
on  main  building.)  All  to  be  put  up  on  strong  timber  carriages,  li-inch  strings, 
1  J-inch  steps,  f-inch  risers  tongued  into  the  steps ;  all  to  be  of  the  best  quality 
of  yellow  pine.  Stair  risers  not  to  be  over  7  inches  in  height ;  all  to  be  put  up 
in  the  best  manner  with  platforms,  &c.,  as  shown  on  plans.  The  railings  around 
the  platforms  and  stairs  are  all  to  be  put  up  in  the  strongest  manner  possible, 
with  strong  rails  and  lA-inch  square  balusters  and  posts,  as  shown  on  plans  ; 
also,  put  up  a  strong  step-ladder  from  second  story  to  roof,  and  a  scuttle  on  roof 
placed  where  directed. 

Floors  and  Roofs. — The  floors  to  be  laid  with  the  best  mill-worked  yellow 
pine  flooring,  lj  inch  thick,  not  over  5  inches  wide,  laid  in  courses,  blind  nailed, 
each  plank  to  each  beam,  to  be  neatly  jointed  and  the  joints  properly  smoothed 
off  when  finished.  All  to  be  clear,  well  seasoned,  and  free  from  defects.  The 
stoop  platforms  to  be  covered  with  same  quality  of  flooring  Platforms  to  be 
furred  up  in  height  as  directed. 

The  roofs  of  main  building  and  of  privies  to  be  sheathed  with  common  mill- 
worked  plank  inch  thick,  bracketed  to  frame.  Valleys  for  water-courses,  and 
all  to  be  well  nailed  down  and  properly  prepared  to  receive  the  tin.  All  roofs 
to  be  covered  with  best  quality  I  C  tin  plate,  charcoal  refined  iron,  well  nailed 
down,  well  clenched  and  soldered,  and  warranted  to  be  water-tight  for  one  year. 
Put  up  on  each  corner  in  rear  two  6-inch  diameter  leaders,  running  across  the 
rear,  conducting  the  water  from  the  roof  to  the  cistern.  The  tin  to  run  up  on 
the  rear  wall  and  return  on  top  under  the  coping.  Also  to  be  returned  in  all 
chimney  joints.  Tin  work  to  be  properly  painted  two  good  coats,  the  resin  to 


56 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


be  neatly  cleaned  off'  before  painting.  Paint  to  be  of  best  quality  roof  paint, 
mixed  with  pure  linseed  raw  oil. 

Hall  Wardrobes  — Put  up  in  all  the  hallways  where  directed,  metal  hat  pins 
screwed  on  beaded  slats  enclosed  with  small  slat  closets  as  directed.  The  total 
number  of  hooks  to  be.  about  500.  The  closets  also  to  be  fitted  up  with  shelves 
in  a  plain  and  substantial  manner  as  directed. 

Privies. — Two  double  privies  to  be  fitted  up  in  yard,  8  by  14  feet,  vaults  6 
feet  deep,  with  seats,  risers,  lids,  &c.,  in  the  most  approved  manner,  with  3  by 
8  inch  beams  for  floors,  covered  with  narrow  plank,  lj  inch  thick,  mill  worked, 
and  covered  with  3  by  6  inch  rafters,  sheathed  with  roof  plank  and  tinned,  same 
as  building.  Also,  in  centre  of  each,  carry  up  a  large  stench  pipe  running  out 
above  the  roof;  and  on  the  side  of  each  attach  a  private  privy  for  the  teachers. 
All  to  be  fitted  up  with  small  sashes  for  light,  with  doors,  &c.,  complete,  in  the 
most  approved  manner.  The  floors  to  have  a  strong  hatch  screwed  down,  so  it 
can  be  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  sinks.  The  outside  walls  of 
said  privies  to  be  built  of  brick,  8  inches  thick. 

Two  Wash-rooms  to  be  partitioned  off  and  fitted  up  in  rear  basement,  one 
for  the  girls,  and  one  for  the  boys  ;  also  janitor’s  room  and  fuel  room  in  front  of 
basement,  as  directed,  with  studded  partitions,  and  lined  with  tongued  and 
grooved  boards  both  sides,  with  batten  doors  where  required,  hung  with  strong 
hinges,  and  fastened  with  padlocks,  hasps,  and  staples. 

Cornice — Put  up  neat,  substantial  wooden  cornices  in  front  and  on  side  of 
building  with  sawed  brackets,  mouldings,  &c.,  well  fastened  on  rough  brack¬ 
ets  ;  all  to  be  finished  and  completed  in  the  best  manner,  as  shown  on  plans. 

Painting. — All  the  wood-work,  both  inside  and  outside,  which  is  usually 
painted,  is  to  have  three  good  coats  of  best  quality  of  paint,  of  whatever  color 
directed.  All  nail  holes  and  slight  defects  in  wood-work  are  to  be  neatly  puttied 
up  before  painting. 

Ventilators,  Smoke-flues,  Registers,  etc. — Put  up  on  the  roof  two 
large  galvanized  iron  ventilators,  20  inches  diameter,  to  be  of  the  most  approved 
pattern,  put  up  in  the  best  manner  and  warranted  water-tight.  Smoke-flues  are 
not  to  be  less  than  9  inches  square  in  the  clear;  ventilating  flues  not  less  than 
12  inches  square  in  the  clear ;  each  Hue  to  be  carried  up  independently  of  any 
other  flue,  and  to  terminate  in  the  ventilator  or  chimney  top  on  the  roof. 

Put  into  the  flues,  where  directed,  stove-pipe  rings  and  covers.  Also  put  in 
the  ventilation  flue  of  each  room  ventilating  registers,  one  at  the  top  and 
the  other  at  the  bottom  of  the  room.  Ventilation  flues  must  descend  to 
the  basement,  and  left  open  on  outside,  with  adjustable  doors  to  regulate  the 
admission  of  cold  air;  also  in  the  flue  between  the  two  openings  in  a  room  is  to 
be  a  close  fitting  door  hung  on  pivots  arranged  to  be  controlled  at  will  from  the 
room,  to  shut  off  currents  of  air  when  desired.  The  registers  in  rooms  to  be 
made  to  open  or  close  at  pleasure.  All  these  flues  to  be  constructed"  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  passing  the  foul  air  from  the  room  out  of  the  ventilators  at  the  top  of 
roof,  and  for  admitting  pure  air  in  its  place. 

Quality  ok  Materials  and  Work. — All  the  materials  used  in  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  building  to  be  of  the  best  quality  of  their  several  kinds.  The  wood 
to  be  well  seasoned,  and  whenever  exposed  to  view  to  be  free  from  any  objection¬ 
able  defects.  All  of  the  above  mentioned  work  to  be  done  in  a  complete,  thor¬ 
ough,  workmanlike  manner. 

The  specification  and  plans  are  intended  to  cover  all  and  every  part  of  the 
details  necessary  to  complete  the  building  in  all  its  parts,  in  a  plain,  substantial 
and  thorough  manner,  and  no  omission  in  the  plans  or  specifications  will  be 
deemed  an  excuse  for  not  fulfilling  the  work. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


57 


FURNITURE. 


71.  Furnish  well.  Let  this  be  the  motto  whatever  the  character  of  the  build¬ 
ing  may  be.  If  costly,  it  will  command  good  furniture.  If  plain,  nearly  all 
the  advantages  of  an  expensive  house  may  be  attained,  for  the  time,  by  furnish¬ 
ing  well.  There  is  vastly  more  comfort  and  contentment  to  teacher  and  pupils 
where  the  wants  of  the  school  have  been  handsomely  provided  for.  The  result 
on  the  one  hand  is  cheerfulness,  love  of  school,  and  progress;  on  the  other  a 
distaste  for  study,  truancy,  and  dissatisfaction.  There  is  now  and  then  a  bril¬ 
liant  mind  that  is  fired  with  a  thirst  for  knowledge — such  will  learn  under  the 
most  adverse  circumstances;  but  this  is  not  commonly  the  case.  We  have  to 
win  youth  by  making  the  path  to  knowledge  a  pleasant  and,  if  possible,  a  flowery 
one.  Children  cannot  sit  still  long  at  home.  They  need  not  be  expected  to 
preserve  order  at  school  when  the  arrangements  are  not  such  as  to  meet  the 
plainest  demands  of  the  place  and  pursuit.  Let  those  who  oppose  a  liberal  sup¬ 
ply  of  furniture  for  the  school  try  beiug  pupils  for  a  few  weeks.  Would  they 
not  generally  yield  their  objections?  Children  grow  restless  and  troublesome 
from  the  very  agony  of  sitting  still.  The  school  ought  not  to  be  a  reminder  of 
the  pillory  or  the  whipping  post. 

72.  The  desks  and  seats  may  be  so  fashioned  as  to  relieve  this  irksomeness. 
They  will  then  add  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  children,  the  ease  of  the  teacher’s 
duties,  and  stimulate  the  pupil’s  progress.  The  height  of  the  seat  should  be  such 
as  to  allow  the  foot  of  the  child  to  rest  naturally  on  the  floor.  The  front  edge  of 
the  seat  may  be  half  an  inch  higher  than  the  back,  to  prevent  the  tendency  to 
slip  forward.  The  height  of  the  desk  corresponds  to  the  height  of  the  child’s 
body.  This  may  be  determined  by  raising  the  arm  to  an  easy  position  for 
writing  or  using  the  slate  pencil.  The  desk  may  slope  toward  the  pupil  about 
one  inch  and  a  half  to  a  foot  of  the  width  of  the  desk.  A  space  about  three 
inches  in  width  at  the  front  edge  ought  to  be  level  or  sloping  a  little  from  the 
pupil  to  prevent  pens  and  pencils  rolling  off.  Sometimes  a  groove  is  ploughed 
out  in  which  to  lay  them,  leaving  three  inches  for  an  ink  well  in  front  of  it.  The 
back  of  the  desk  ought  to  have  about  the  same  inclination  from  a  vertical  line 
as  a  chair  back,  say  two  inches  to  a  foot.  Where  the  furniture  is  to  be  made 
by  a  carpenter  at  home,  it  is  often  desirable  to  make  all  the  joints  square.  In 
that  case  the  desk,  seat,  and  back  may  be  set  at  right  angles.  To  get  the  slope 
for  the  back,  and  the  inclination  for  the  desk,  cut  the  foot  of  the  standard  on  a 
bevel  of  one  inch  and  a  half  to  the  foot. 

The  cut  represents  the  ends  of  wooden  desks  as 
commonly  made  by  carpenters.  The  material  used 
is  pine  boards.  They  are  much  better  than  no 
desks ;  but  there  are  grave  objections  to  them.  The 
ends  or  standards  are  two  feet  broad  on  the  floor. 
The  great  width  interferes  with  pupils  getting  in 
and  out  of  their  seats.  Dirt  accumulates  about 
them  and  cannot  be  readily  swept  or  scrubbed  away, 
especially  on  the  inner  sides.  Uneasy  children  un¬ 
consciously  thump  their  shoes  against  them,  causing 
The  backs  are  boarded  down  low,  which  with  the  ends 
The  nails  work  loose  in  the  standards  or  draw 


Fig.  29.  End  view  of  common 
wooden  desks. 


confusion  in  the  room, 
prevent  a  free  circulation  of  air. 
out  of  the  floor  and  leave  the  desks  in  a  rickety  condition,  quite  unfit  for  use. 


58 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Fig.  31.  Cross-bar. 


73.  A  A  represent  the  ends  of  two  desks;  E  and  C,  the  long  standards;  and 
H,  a  short  standard  at  the  front.  F  and  H  are  at  the  centre  of  the  desks  ;  J 
is  a  cross-bar  halved  into  F  and  H,  and  bolted  to  them.  It  holds  the  two  desks 
firmly  together,  so  that  any  motion  of  pupils  sitting  on  the  seat  S  would  not  jar 
the  desk  at  the  back  of  them.  An  entire  row  of  desks  locked  together  in  this 
way  are  much  firmer  than  when  they  stand  independently. 

Fig.  31  shows  the  form  of  the  cross-bar  J,  and  the  points  at  which  it  is  inter¬ 
locked  with  the  standards  F  and  H.  It  is  attached  to 
them  with  small  bolts  or  large  screws.  S  and  T  repre¬ 
sent  the  seats,  which  are  12  inches  wide;  B  and  G  form 
the  back  to  the  seat.  They  are  halved  into  the  standards 
and  securely  fastened  by  screws ;  G  is  also  nailed  to  the 
back  edge  of  the  seat  S,  which  is  supported  in  the  centre  by  the  cross-bar  J. 
Each  end  of  a  seat  is  supported  by  a  bracket  as  shown  at  K.  This  bracket  is 
omitted  under  the  seat  at  S  in  order  to  show  the  cross-bar. 

The  standards  and  brackets  are  of  hard  wood.  The  former  are  about  3  by  3 
inches  square.  Their  appearance  may  be  improved  by  turning  the  parts  not 
covered  by  the  other  portions  of  the  desk  which  are  attached  to  them.  The 
brackets  are  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  halved  into  the  standards.  In  putting 
together,  the  joints  should  all  be  glued  and  bolted  or  screwed  firmly  to  each 
other.  The  feet  of  the  standards  are  fastened  to  the  floor  by  cast-iron  braces  or 
knees.  Each  desk  is  furnished  with  a  shelf  divided  into  two  compartments,  one 
for  each  pupil.  An  iron  brace  six  or  eight  inches  long  runs  down  from  the 
shelf  to  each  side  of  the  long  centre  standards  F  and  M. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


fiB 


In  this  cut  D  represents  the  tops  of  the  desks,  and  S  S  the  seats.  J,  the 
cross-bar,  with  its  connections  at  the  centre  standards  F  and  H.  E  and  its  cor¬ 
responding  points  give  the  position  of  the  tops  of  the  end  standards.  Over  the 
short  standards  at  H  and  I  a  hole  is  made  for  an  ink-well,  of  which  a  cut  and 
description  are  given  below. 

The  end  standards  present  even  less  hindrance  to  persons  getting  in  and  out 
their  seats  than  iron  standards.  The  children  cannot  hit  their  feet  against  them, 
except  by  an  effort  and  desire  to  create  confusion.  There  is  no  lodgement  for 
dirt  that  may  not  he  readily  reached  by  broom  and  scrubbing  brush.  The 
heights  of  the  standards  may  be  altered  to  conform  to  the  sizes  of  the  smaller 
pupils,  as  given  in  the  Scale  of  Measurement  of  Desks.  (|f  75.)  The  air  is 
allowed  free  circulation.  An  entire  row  is  locked  together  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be  self-supporting  and  to  resist  the  jarring  incident  to  the  pupils  moving  on 
their  seats,  or  pressing  their  backs  against  the  desks  behind  them. 

Iron  standards  for  desks  and  chairs  are  among  the  expensive  luxuries  and 
conveniences  to  be  aspired  after  as  the  work  of  improvement  goes  on.  They 
accompany  finely  polished  tops,  easy  and  comfortable  chairs.  They  are  repre¬ 
sented  in  annexed  cuts. 


Fig.  33.  Single  desk  and  chair.  Fig.  34.  Double  desk  and  chairs. 

74.  To  lay  off  the  floor  of  a  room,  for  putting  down  the  furniture,  strike 
a  chalk  line  along  one  side  three  and  a  half  feet  from  the  wall.  This  marks  the 
width  of  an  aisle,  also  the  side  of  a  row  of  desks.  Measure  off  the  length  of  a 
desk,  and  strike  another  line  parallel  with  the  first.  Lay  off  the  width  of  an 
inside  aisle  next,  then  of  a  row  of  desks,  and  so  on  until  there  remains  only 
space  enough  for  the  other  outside  aisle  three  and  a  half  feet  wide. 


60 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Now  begin  at  the  back  end  of  the  room.  Draw  a  line  across  it  three  and  a 
half  feet  from  the  wall.  This  gives  the  position  for  the  standards  of  a  range  of 
seats.  Put  them  in  their  places.  Set  up  a  desk  so  that  the  edge  next  the  pupil 
will  fall  less  than  half  an  inch  short  of  the  vertical  line  touching  the  front  edge 
of  the  seat.  The  space  which  a  desk  and  seat  occupy  in  a  row  is  now  ob¬ 
tained  ;  with  it  lay  off  other  cross  lines  denoting  the  positions  of  the  rest  of  the 
desks. 

The  larger  desks  staud  at  the  back  end  of  the  room.  Two,  three,  or  four 
different  heights  will  be  required.  They  need  not  vary  in  length.  Six 
inches ’s  allowed  for  the  width  of  the  seat  standards  and  the  slope  of  the  backs 
when  commencing  to  lay  off  at  the  back  side  of  the  room.  Before  beginning  to 
put  down  the  desks  it  will  be  found  very  convenient  to  make  for  use  what  the 
carpenters  call  a  “  bevel.”  This  is  formed  by  two  strips  of  board  three  to  five 
inches  wide  and  two  feet  long,  nailed  together  a1-  the  same  angle  represented  by 
one  of  the  end  standards  with  the  floor,  say  an  inch  and  a  half  to  the  foot. 

75,  Scale  of  Measurement  of  Desks  and  Seats. 


DESK. 

SEAT. 

Length  of 
desk  and 
seat. 

Size. 

Width. 

Height  of 
edge  from 
floor. 

Width. 

Height  of 
edge  from 
floor. 

No.  1 . 

Inches. 

18 

Inches. 

274 

Inches. 

12 

Inches. 

16 

Inches. 

48 

No.  2 . 

16 

244 

11 

13i 

46 

No.  3 . 

14 

2l! 

20 

JO* 

11 

44 

No.  4 . 

12 

10 

10 

42 

76.  Ink-wells. — The  waste  of  ink  and  the  destruction  of  clothes  by  accidents 
in  a  school  during  any  single  year  has  been  computed  to  be 
greater  than  the  cost  of  furnishing  every  desk  with  a  perma¬ 
nently  attached  ink-well.  The  ink-cup,  represented  in  Fig  35, 
is  a  common  form  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  fitted  to  the  desk 
by  boring  first  to  the  depth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  with  an  auger 
the  size  of  the  flange,  then  with  one  of  lesser  size  deep  enough  to 
receive  the  entire  cup.  The  position  of  the  ink-well  foradouble  pio.  3-  iufc.CUp 
desk  is  in  the  centre  of  the  level  space  at  the  top,  so  that  the  0 
two  pupils  occupying  the  desk  may  use  it  jointly. 


A  is  a  metallic  ring  fastened  to  the  desk  ;  B,  flange  raised  to  receive  C  (the 
cover)  when  turned  and  pressed  under  the  flange,  which  holds  it  tightly;  D,  the 
cap  with  which  to  close  the  pen  hole  E,  and  prevent  evaporation. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


61 


Some  simple  contrivance  is  needed  to  cover  the  ink-cup,  for  the  double  pur¬ 
pose  of  preventing  the  pupils  from  taking  the  cup  out  at  any  time,  and  to  guard 
against  evaporation.  These  objects  are  gained  in  the  illustration. 


77.  Teacher’s  Table. — Fig. 
37  represents  an  approved  style 
of  plain  table  for  the  teacher, 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  small 
school  where  there  is  a  teacher’s 
room  or  closet. 


Fig-.  37.  Teacher’s  table,  No.  1. 


Where  those  conveniences  are  not  provided,  larger  tables,  like  those  shown  in 
Figs.  3S  and  39,  are  needed  for  the  safe-keeping  of  books,  papers,  &c.,  of  various 
kinds  required  for  daily  use  in  the  school. 


78.  The  furniture  of  the  teacher’s  room  should 
comprise  two  or  more  chairs,  a  small  writing  table, 
a  book  case  for  library,  and  a  closet.  When  en¬ 
larged  to  adapt  it  to  a  recitation  room,  seats  and 
blackboards  will  be  required. 

We  would  recommend,  instead  of  the  brackets 
shown  in  the  figure  to  support  the  book-case,  a 
suit  of  large  drawers  extending  down  to  the  floor 
for  wall  maps,  charts,  &c. 

79.  Blackboards  are  indispensable.  With 
them  a  well  qualified  teacher  can  instruct  a  large 
class  with  the  same  facility  as  one  pupil.  The 
illustrations  given  on  them  arrest  the  attention  of 
children  and  help  to  enforce  a  truth  or  an  explana¬ 
tion.  Pupils  ai-e  fond  of  working  at  them  in  classes. 
Especially  are  they  important  in  the  instruction  of 
primary  scholars.  Fifty  children  may  be  taught 
the  alphabet  and  easy  reading,  as  well  as  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  writing,  drawing,  and  arithmetic,  sooner  and 

Fig.  40.  A  Book-case.  easier  with  blackboards  than  fifteen  can  without 
them. 

Their  supply  should  be  abundant.  Beginning  with  a  fine  large  one  on  the 
wall  in  rear  of  the  teacher’s  platform,  they  should  extend  to  the  two  sides  of  the 
room,  covering  the  vacant  spaces  between  the  windows.  The  upper  edge  should 
not  be  over  six  and  a  half  feet  from  the  floor.  The  lower  one  should  come  to 


62 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


within  two  feet  of  the  floor,  making  the  width  about  four  or  four  and  a  half  feet. 
At  the  lower  edge,  a  trough  four  inches  wide  is  needed  for  the  chalk,  rubbers, 
and  pointers.  The  other  three  edges  may  be  bordered  by  a  plain  moulding. 

80.  The  material  for  blackboard  is  white  pine,  white  wood,  or  other  similar 
grained  wood.  Yellow  pine  and  some  of  the  hard  woods  have  a  coarser  and 
unequal  grain,  that  make  them  unfit  for  this  purpose.  The  stuff  should  be  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  thoroughly  seasoned,  planed  smoothly,  sand¬ 
papered  down,  and  set  in  a  frame  at  the  ends  so  that  hey  may  be  crowded  to¬ 
gether  in  case  of  shrinking. 

81.  Blackboard  Paint. — In  color,  it  should  be  dark  nearly  black.  It  must 
be  durable  as  the  hardest  varnish,  yet  not.  glossy.  Its  su  face  should  be  slightly 
gritty,  so  as  to  catch  every  touch  of  the  crayon,  without  i  eing  harsh  or  rough. 
The  oil  paints  become  smooth  and  glossy  with  wear ;  to  prevent  this,  add  a 
small  quantity  of  the  finest  flour  of  emery  or  pumice-stone  before  using.  A 
few  experiments  may  be  necessary  to  determine  the  quantity. 

A  most  excellent  article  is  sold  by  the  school  furnishing  houses.  A  fair  imi¬ 
tation  may  be  produced  by  dissolving  gum  shellac  in  alcohol.  This  gives 
“  body.”  Add  flour  of  emery  to  produce  an  abrading  surface,  and  lamp-black, 
moistened  with  alcohol,  to  give  the  color.  The  liquid  should  be  thinner  than 
paint  and  constantly  stirred  while  being  applied.  A  fine  hair  brush  should  be 
used  to  put  it  on  with ;  common  paint  brushes  leave  the  surface  rough.  To 
smooth  it  down  take  a  block  of  wood  that  has  been  coated  with  the  same  mate¬ 
rial,  after  both  are  dry  and  hard,  and  rub  it  over  the  face  of  the  board. 

82.  Plaster  Black  Wall.* — The  following  directions  may  be  of  some 
use  in  making  plaster  black  wall : 

In  the  first  place,  the  scratch  coat,  made  with  coarse  sand,  is  spread  upon  the 
laths  as  usual,  and  the  brown  coat  follows,  being  left  a  little  rough  under  the 
“  float.”  When  the  brown  coat  is  perfectly  dry,  the  black  coat  is  laid  on. 

This  is  prepared  of  mason’s  “  putty”  and  ground  plaster  and  beach  sand, 
mixed  in  the  usual  proportions  for  hard  finish.  The  coloring  matter  is  lamp¬ 
black,  wet  with  alcohol  or  whiskey,  forming  a  mixture  of  the  consistency  of 
paste.  This  is  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients  just  as  they  are  about  to  be 
spread  upon  the  wall.  The  quantity  of  coloring  to  be  used  must  be  sufficient 
to  make  a  black  surface ;  the  sufficiency  being  determined  by  experiment — no  rule 
can  be  given.  An  intelligent  mason  can  very  soon  try  experiments  so  as  to 
insure  success.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  black  surface  requires  much 
more  woiking  with  the  smoothing  trowel  than  ordinary  white  finish.  It  should 
be  finished  by  being  softly  smoothed  with  a  wet  brush.  When  perfectly  dry 
it  is  nearly  as  hard  as  slate,  and  almost  as  durable,  if  carefully  used.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  in  too  much  lamp-black. 

The  following  recipe  is  suggestive  : 

For  twenty  square  yards  of  wall,  take  three  pecks  of  mason’s  putty,  (white 
finish,)  three  pecks  of  clean,  white  sand,  and  three  pecks  of  ground  and  cal¬ 
cined  plaster  ;  add  to  this  mixture  three  pounds  of  lamp-black  dissolved  in  three 
gallons  of  alcohol,  and  lay  it  on  evenly  and  smoothly. 

A  mason  who  has  had  good  success  in  this  class  of  work  uses  one  part  hydraulic 
cement  with  two  of  lime  in  the  second  coat.  The  lamp-black  is  used  in  this  and 
no  skim  coat  is  added.  So  much  depends  upon  the  nature  and  conditions  of 
the  materials  employed  that  it  must  be  left  to  the  experimenter  to  make  the 
exact  combinations  in  each  particular  case. 

83.  A  paper  surface  that  answers  well  on  walls  too  rough  for  the  chalk  or 
crayon,  may  be  made  by  taking  the  stout  manilla  paper  that  comes  in  rolls  ;  cut  it 
the  required  length;  lay  it  on  a  table  and  moisten  it  with  a  preparation  of  glue 


Barnard’s  School  Architecture. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


63 


or  paste.  The  wall  should  he  first  smoothed  down  with  a  piece  of  pumice 
stone  or  a  brick,  and  covered  with  a  coating  of  glue.  Apply  the  paper. 
When  dry  use  the  best  paint  that  you  can  get  for  it.  Renew  the  paint  as  often 
as  it  seems  necessary,  for  the  paper  itself  would  soon  wear  through  it'  left  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  abrasion  of  the  chalk. 

84.  Slate  makes  the  best  blackboard.  It  is  indeed  the  only  thing  really  fit- 
All  the  others  are  temporary  substitutes,  cheaper  in  the  beginning,  but  infi¬ 
nitely  poorer  and  finally  more  costly.  They  may  be  ordered  through  the  school 
furnishing  establishments,  or  obtained  at  the  Eagle  quarries,  Vermont,  of  any 
required  size.  They  are  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick  ;  nevi  r  get  out  of  repair ; 
will  la.-t  for  generations.  It  will  always  pay  to  get  them  where  there  are  sev¬ 
eral  rooms  to  be  furnished. 

85.  Rubber. — “The  best  thing  for  removing  the  chalk  from  the  board  is  a 
brush,  made  of  the  size  of  a  shoe-brush,  with  the  wooden  handle  on  the  back, 
the  face  being  covered  with  a  sheep-skin  with  the  wool  on.  This  removes  the 
chalk  at  a  single  sweep,  without  wearing  the  surface,  and  without  soiling  the 
hand  of  the  operator.  This  is  a  great  improvement  over  a  dust-cloth  or  a  sponge.” 

86.  Keep  dry. — “  In  all  cases  let  the  board  be  kept  dry  ;  never  allow  a  pupil 
to  wet  the  wiper  when  removing  the  chalk.” 

To  restore  the  surface. — “By  long  use,  especially  if  the  surface  is  ever 
cleaned  with  a  wet  wiper,  this  kind  of  blackboard  becomes  too  smooth  and  glossy 
upon  the  surface  ;  the  chalk  passes  over  it  without  taking  effect,  and  the  light 
is  reflected  by  it.  A  very  simple  wash,  applied  with  a  soft  brush,  will  immedi¬ 
ately  restore  it;  this  wash  is  made  by  dissolving  one  part  of  glue,  to  two  parts 
of  alum  in  water,  so  as  to  make  a  very  thin  solution.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
wash  slightly  colored  with  lamp-black.  Care  must  be  taken  that  this  wash  do 
not  have  too  much  ‘body.’  ”  [Barnard’s  School  Architecture.] 

87.  We  are  not  yet  done  furnishing  the  school-room  There  remains  to 
be  supplied  a  variety  of  lesser  articles.  To  name  them  will  generally  suggest 
their  use  and  importance.  As  accompaniments  of  the  fireplace  or  stove,  a  poker, 
shovel,  and  tongs,  a  sheet-iron  ash  pail,  and  a  dish  for  evaporating  water,  are 
needed.  A  broom,  dust-brush,  and  dust-pan,  mop  and  mop-pail,  scrubbing-brush, 
wash-basin,  and  towels,  two  water-buckets  and  dippers,  door  mats  and  scrapers — 
all  familiar  and  suggestive  names,  bringing  to  mind  white  floors,  clean  furniture 
and  sweet  faces.  A  clock,  thermometer,  and  signal-bell  for  the  teacher  will  help 
to  insure  promptness,  regularity,  comfort,  and  good  order. 

88.  A  large  bell  should  ting  nut  the  hour  for  school  from  the  belfry,  loud 
enough  to  be  heard  all  over  the  village  or  district.  If  grown-up  persons  must 
be  reminded  of  the  return  of  the  hour  of  piayer  when  the  welcome  duties  of 
the  sanctuary  are  to  bring  consolation  and  repose  from  care,  how  much  more  do 
children  in  the  midst  of  their  glee  and  innocent  amusement  need  to  be  admon¬ 
ished  that  school  time  is  at  hand. 

By  all  that  we  love  in  youth  or  hope  from  them  in  riper  years,  let  the  school- 
building  be  good,  the  furniture  better,  and  the  teacher  the  best  that  our  means 
can  obtain. 


OUTBCILDIIGS. 

89.  A  Wood-house  is  always  needed.  A  shed  for  the  wood  can  easily  be  built 
when  a  better  building  cannot  be  prepared.  Then  the  wood  can  be  procured 
months  in  advance  of  cold  weather,  cut  up,  piled  and  be  in  readiness  for  use. 
The  habit  of  using  green  wood  is  a  wasteful  one.  It  takes  more  wood  ;  the  steam 
general ed  cracks  the  stove  and  rusts  the  pipes.  The  temperature  cannot  be 
properly  regulated  with  it.  The  gases  which  it  emits  are  often  offensive  and  in¬ 
jurious  to  health.  And  then,  it  is  an  unreasonable  tax  on  the  teacher  to  add  the 
task  of  seasoning  the  fuel  to  conducting  the  school. 


64 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


90.  An  Ash-house  is  needed  also.  It  is  a  slovenly  practice  to  throw  the 
ashes  down  by  the  door  to  be  tracked  back  into  the  house  again. 

91.  Privies. — It  is  said  that  the  objection  which  many  parents,  and  especially 
mothers,  have  to  sending  their  daughters  to  the  public  school  arises  from  the  dis¬ 
graceful  condition  of  the  back-yards,  and  the  utter  neglect  of  enforcing  the 
decencies  of  life.  In  the  first  place,  there  should  be  two  separate  privies,  not 
within  a  hundred  feet  of  the  well  or  the  house,  nor  near  each  other.  A  tight, 
high  board  fence  or  evergreen  hedge  should  divide  the  back-yards.  Lattice 
screens  overgrown  with  vines  or  evergreen  hedges  should  add  to  their  retirement. 
They  should  be  large  and  supplied  with  vaults  not  less  than  six  feet  deep,  through 
which,  if  possible,  a  stream  of  water  should  pass.  In  that  for  the  boys  there 
should  be  an  arrangement  to  prevent  their  standing  on  the  seats.  Let  urinals 
be  provided  on  one  side  of  a  partition  and  seats  on  the  other.  Subdivide  them 
by  short  partitions  so  as  to  allow  about  two  feet  to  each  division.  The  whole 
should  be  painted  and  heavily  sanded  to  prevent  marking  The  doors  should 
be  kept  locked  and  no  one  permitted  to  enter  except  during  the  hours  when  pupils 
are  allowed  in  the  yards.  The  teacher,  out  of  respect  to  common  decency,  will 
see  that  nothing  in  connection  with  the  establishment  becomes  a  disgrace  to  the 
school  nor  a  nuisance  to  the  neighborhood;  but  the  school  officers  will  not  neg¬ 
lect  their  share  of  the  duty,  by  having  the  vaults  cleaned  and  supplied  with 
lime,  wood-ashes,  and  other  strong  disinfectants  during  the  hot  season.  This 
must  be  rigidly  attended  to  by  the  janitor,  in  large  buildings.  For  specifications 
for  the  construction  of  privies  see  70.  Wood  may,  of  course,  be  substituted 
for  the  walls  above  ground  in  the  place  of  brick. 

JMPKOV1XG  THE  CIKOEjVHS. 

92.  If  there  were  any  point  at  which  a  digression  from  the  rigid  line  of  prac¬ 
tical  thought  were  admissible,  it  is  here.  The  school  has  a  character  to  establish. 
It  is  to  be  honored  and  cherished,  or  neglected  and  despised.  To  be  honored  it 
must  be  fruitful  in  good  works.  Yet  of  itself  it  can  do  nothing.  It  has  neither 
personality  nor  power,  except  as  its  friends  impart  vitality  to  it.  It  is  to  be  the 
reflection  of  their  wisdom  and  care,  or  the  memorial  of  their  ignorance  and  im¬ 
potence.  The  erection  of  a  fine  building  is  one  good  step  ;  furnishing  it  well, 
another ;  employing  a  good  teacher  is  not  the  least  item.  But  beyond  these  the 
improvement  of  the  yard  and  grounds  is  worthy  of  much  attention.  Children 
catch  the  sentiment  of  a  place  as  by  inspiration.  The  beautiful  lawn,  the  shady 
grove,  the  inviting  play -ground,  have  a  charm  for  them.  Even  the  flower  border 
impresses  rough  and  reckless  fellows  with  respect.  It  helps  to  refine  their 
thoughts  and  purify  their  hearts. 

What  shall  the  improvements  be,  and  how  shall  they  be  made?  The  circum¬ 
stances  of  each  case  must  be  regarded.  We  only  suggest  in  a  general  way. 

93.  Fences. — One  of  the  first  things  to  be  done  in  this  line  is  to  enclose  the 
grounds  with  a  substantial  defence  against  the  incursions  of  stock  allowed  to 
roam  at  large.  A  good  panel  board  fence  need  only  be  named.  Every  one 
knows  how  to  build  it.  If  sawed  lumber  be  scarce  a  fence  of  posts  and  rails  is 
not  to  be  despised.  Where  rock  is  easily  obtained  and  the  ground  is  firm,  a  stone 
wall  answers  every  purpose.  If  the  material  be  nicely  selected  and  well  laid, 
there  is  no  particular  objection  to  this  sort  of  enclosui’e,  except  that  the  top  stones 
will  be  liable  to  get  knocked  down  by  the  boys  in  their  plays.  Vines  may  be 
planted  to  run  over  the  wall.  The  woodbine,  the  ivy,  grape,  clematis,  or  any  of 
the  numerous  delicate  flowering  vines  with  which  a  neighborhood  abounds,  would 
add  much  to  the  grace  of  an  otherwise  uncomely  fence. 

94.  Gates  or  wickets  of  the  most  substantial  kind  should  be  placed  at  the  en¬ 
trances.  There  may  properly  be  one  in  front  and  one  for  each  of  the  yards, 
besides  a  large  gate  for  teams  when  hauling  wood,  &c.  Some  neat,  strong  speci- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES.  65 

mens  of  rustic  gates  are  illustrated  in  several  cuts  in  a  subsequent  portion  of  the 
work. 

95.  In  the  construction  of  walks,  such  materials  may  be  used  as  are  commonly 
employed  in  the  neighborhood.  When  gravel  is  abundant  there  is  nothing  better. 
It  should  be  liberally  spread  around  the  front  of  the  building  several  inches  deep. 
If  the  ground  be  moist  let  blind  drains  be  laid  under  or  near  them  and  in  the 
direction  of  the  gates,  out-buildings,  well  or  spring,  and  the  play-grounds.  They 
may  often  be  gracefully  curved  and  in  that  way  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
yard  ;  yet  if  the  curvatures  are  too  great  the  children  will  leave  them  and  run 
across  the  grass. 

Plank  makes  a  good  substitute  for  gravel,  but  are  rather  expensive.  Perma¬ 
nent  walks  are  also  made  by  mixing  plastering-sand  with  boiled  coal  tar  in  such 
piopoitions  as  to  form  a  stiff  mortar,  and  then  spreading  on  a  coating  two  inches 
thick.  For  drive-ways  or  road-crossings  it  must  be  much  thicker. 

96.  Shark  and  Ornamental  Trees  —Under  this  head  much  might  be  said : 
the  kinds  to  be  selected,  the  time  of  year  to  transplant  them,  where  to  set  them, 
and  how  to  tend  them  afterwards — all  this  must  be  left  to  the  local  officers  or 
friends  interested.  The  entire  plat  should  be  surrounded  by  a  row  of  shade 
tiees  planted  twenty  to  thirty  or  more  feet  apart,  according  to  the  habit  of  the 
tiee.  Selections  may  be  made  from  among  the  broad  spreading  oaks,  the  grace- 
tul  elms,  the  pretty-leaved  maples,  gums,  ashes,  locusts,  and  their  kindred,  or 
the  unique  juniper,  arbor  vitae,  the  spruces,  firs,  pines,  cypress,  and  other  coue- 
b earing  trees.  Within  the  yard  the  magnolia,  the  palmetto  and  its  kindred, 
the  oleander,  the  flowering  myrtle,  the  orange,  date,  olive,  and  many  other  ele¬ 
gant  and  attractive  trees.  Shrubs  and  flowering  plants  should  be  carefullv 
planted. 

All  that  need  be  done  in  this  direction  may  be  accomplished  without  paying- 
out  much  money.  There  are  many  wild  flowers  which  equal  or  excel  the  cultf- 
vated  varieties,  which  the  children  might  bring,  with  all  their  roots  undisturbed 
in  the  earth,  from  their  native  habitats.  The  older  boys  can  dig  up  the  trees 
under  the  instructions  of  an  experienced  tree-planter,  who  will  teach  them  how 
precious  are  the  rootlets  to  the  life  of  the  tree,  and  how  carefully  they  must  be 
preserved  from  dryness  or  bruising.  Let  some  one  start  the  project,  volunteer 
his  own  services,  bring  in  others,  and  the  work  is  done.  But  that  some  one 
must  take  the  lead.  Talk  is  idle.  Work  wins.  Those  who  do  the  work  will 
have  the  credit  and  the  satisfaction. 

97.  Drainage  should  be  complete  from  every  part  of  the  grounds.  Where 
the  soil  is  not  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  especially  where  the  sub-soil  is  compact 
some  artificial  drains  will  be  needed  to  carry  the  water  off  as  fast  as  it  falls  on 
the  sni face,  (surface  or  open  drains  are  useful,  but  not  sufficient  in  many  cases. 

A  secret  or  blind  dram  should  be  sunk  every  twenty  to  fifty  feet,  accordin'* 
to  the  soil,  running  in  the  direction  of  the  declivity  of  the  ground.  Its  width  on 
the  bottom  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  drain  laid.  If  tile,  made  of  burnt  clay 
it  may  be  narrow,  only  wide  enough  for  the  ditcher’s  foot.  If  stones  are  used,  it 
must  be  wider,  say  twelve  to  sixteen  inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  stones. 

io  make  an  arched  drain  lay  a  course  of  stones  four-inch  square  along  each 
side,  cover  these  with  a  flat  stone  wide  enough  to  lap  on  to  each  side  at  least 
two  inches.  Fill  in  with  smaller  stones,  say  six  inches.  Then  scatter  in  a 
course  ot  straw,  broom  grass,  or  other  litter,  three  inches.  Haul  in  the  dirt 
pounding  it  down  firmly  as  you  go. 

Cobble  stones,  three-inch  diameter,  or  less,  may  be  used  when  square  and  flat 
stones  cannot  be  obtained.  They  are  thrown  into  the  ditch  to  the  depth  of  six 
or  twelve  inches  then  covered  with  straw,  or  sods  turned  grass  side  down,  and 
filled  over  with  dirt. 

W  here  stones  do  not  abound  logs  may  be  used.  Take  three  sticks  of  straight, 
enduring  timber  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  Lay  two  for  the  sides,  and  a 
5  s  c 


66 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


third,  which  should  be  larger  and  might  be  split  in  two,  over  these,  then  fill  in  as 
before. 

When  a  portion  of  the  soil  is  spongy,  or  sandy  and  springy,  common  drains 
are  liable  to  fill  up.  In  such  cases  brush  may  be  used.  Gather  a  quantity  of 
small  straight  limbs  from  some  trees  noted  for  enduring  well  when  exposed  to 
dampness.  Commence  with  these  at  the  higher  end  of  the  drain.  Lay  the  fine 
brush  towards  the  higher  end,  the  larger  ends  of  the  brush  going  down  into  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch.  Place  one  course  on  after  another  in  a  shingling  fashion. 
Cover  as  before  directed. 

Another  style,  known  as  the  box  drain,  is  available  for  general  drainage,  but 
especially  adapted  to  carrying  water  from  leaders,  wash-rooms,  &c. 

The  bottom  plank  of  a  box  drain  is  two  inches  thick  by  six  or  eight  inches 
wide ;  the  side  pieces  two  or  three  inches  square ;  the  top  same  dimensions  as 
bottom.  When  used  specially  for  drainage,  holes  may  be  bored  through  the  top 
and  sides.  Notches  cut  in  the  side  pieces  before  putting  together  answer  the 
same  purpose.  They  are  more  quickly  made.  The  object  of  these  perforations 
is  to  let  in  the  water.  A  box  of  rough  materials  could  scarcely  be  so  tight  as 
to  keep  it  out.  If  in  the  ground  it  will  find  the  passage. 

Drains  should  be  laid  under  or  near  walks,  and  generally  at  all  places  where 
the  water  stands  after  a  shower. 

HOMES  FOK  THE  PEOPLE. 

98.  Good  schools  and  good  homes  must  unite  in  the  elevation  of  any  people. 
The  one  opens  the  mind  to  a  knowledge  of  the  world  we  live  in ;  the  other 
softens  the  heart,  refines  by  its  gentle  influences,  the  rude  passions  and  trains 
them  into  control.  When  the  child  passes  from  the  tender  care  of  a  dutiful, 
Christian  teacher  to  a  hovel  of  filth,  where  the  decencies  of  life  are  disregarded, 
the  contact  is  contaminating.  The  aspirations  implanted  in  the  youthful  mind 
after  a  higher  life  are  weakened  or  wholly  eradicated.  Not  alone  is  “the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  poor  their  poverty,”  but  ignorance  paralyzes  their  efforts  and 
neglect  chills  many  a  noble  young  heart.  The  love  of  home  is  God-given.  It 
rises  instinctively  in  youth.  Never  was  there  a  boy  born  in  hunter’s  cabin  or 
royal  palace  but  pictured  to  himself  the  happy  home  he  would  have  some  day 
of  his  own.  And  yet  how  many  generous  spirited  boys  for  the  want  of  such  a 
home  have  grown  up  to  a  hard,  coarse  manhood,  or  dwindled  into  maturity 
full  of  sharp,  scheming,  tight-fisted  selfishness,  sinking  at  last  into  an  unloved 
and  pitiable  old  age. 

It  is  a  misfortune  for  persons  of  small  means,  without  stated  and  regular  in¬ 
comes,  to  be  obliged  to  bring  up  their  families  in  great  cities.  Business  can  pay 
higher  rents  than  homes,  so  it  drives  homes  out  to  the  suburbs.  But  the  poor, 
for  the  sake  of  being  near  their  daily  labor,  often  crowd  into  vast  tenement 
houses  which  are  wholly  unfit  for  habitation,  or  take  refuge  down  filthy  alleys 
in  damp,  dismal  cellars.  There  the  pure  air  and  sunshine  can  seldom  come. 
Vice,  ignorance,  and  immorality  conspire  together  to  destroy  the  health  and  ruin 
the  soul.  But  little  better  is  it  for  those  who  colonize  upon  the  outskirts  on  low, 
damp,  marshy  lands  liable  to  overflow  by  fresh  water.  The  air  of  such  locali¬ 
ties,  poisoned  by  the  miasma  which  they  generate,  invites  the  annual  recurrence 
of  fevers  and  the  attacks  of  wide-spread  and  fatal  epidemics. 

99.  As  a  rule,  the  man  is  a  better,  more  stable  citizen  vrho  owns  a  home  of  his 
own.  That  house,  though  it  be  only  an  bumble  cabin,  is  his  castle.  There  the 
laws  protect  him  in  his  rights,  and  he  bids  defiance  to  any  intruder.  The 
American  policy,  recognizing  the  mutual  relations  and  dependency  of  an  inde¬ 
pendent  yoemanry  to  a  free  government,  invites  the  homeless  of  all  nations  to 
come  and  take  the  gift  of  a  farm,  to  own  it,  live  on  it,  cultivate  it,  and  become  a 
responsible  member  of  a  liberal  and  powerful  nation.  To  promote  intelligence 
it  dispenses  millions  of  acres  under  a  pledge  that  they  shall  be  sacredly  devoted 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


67 


to  educational  uses.  There  is  not  only  land  enough  for  every  man  to  have  a  farm, 
but  material  enough  for  every  family  to  have  a  comfortable  home. 

100.  In  seeking  a  location  the  first  consideration  is  to  learn  whether  it  is 
healthful.  No  one  giving  the  subject  thought  will  locate  where  his  family 
will  be  exposed  to  the  “  effluvia  of  vaults,  drains,  sewers,  and  extensive  pig¬ 
geries,  slaughter-houses,  manufactories  of  manures  from  bones  and  other  putres¬ 
cent  emanations.  These  are  prolific  sources  of  disease,  almost  always  with 
a  typhoid  tendency.”  The  house  should  stand  where  there  will  be  a  free  play 
of  breezes,  yet  sheltered  from  the  rudest  winds.  Trees  should  be  near,  yet  not 
so  near  as  to  shade  the  house  completely,  or  shut  out  the  gentle  breezes  in  hot 
weather.  Both  these  and  the  sunlight  are  essential  to  health.  The  employer 
who  would  make  his  own  interests  to  be  respected  by  those  he  employs,  will 
extend  all  the  aid  he  can  in  helping  them  to  secure  pleasant,  comfortable  homes 
of  their  own. 


Fig.  41.  Design  for  Log  House. 

101.  Our  ideas  of  log  houses  are  almost  always  associated  with  pioneer  life 
in  a  wooded  country.  But  this  does  not  necessarily  connect  them  with  poverty, 
much  less  with  ignorance  and  vice.  Pioneers  are  often  the  most  far-seeing, 
stout-hearted,  and  industrious  of  men,  given  to  frankness  and  an  open-handed 
hospitality  that  regales  their  guests  more  than  a  feast.  In  presenting,  therefore, 
a  unique  design  of  this  kind  we  prefer  to  conceive  that  it  is  to  be  copied  by  in¬ 
telligent,  thrifty  people,  who  will  soon  reduce  the  forest  to  a  fruitful  field,  and 
build  school-houses  and  churches  where  lately  the  wildness  of  nature  ruled 
supreme. 

The  architect  (Yaux)  justly  remarks :  This  design  does  not  illustrate  a  log 
cabin,  or  single  room,  in  which  a  family  of  men,  women,  and  children  eat,  drink, 
sleep,  wash,  dress,  and  undress  all  together.  It  is  the  plan  of  a  house  for  a 
well-to-do  settler  and  his  family. 

The  principal  apartment,  sixteen  by  twenty  feet,  is  proposed  to  commuuicate 
at  once  with  the  open  air  through  a  door  under  the  veran¬ 
da-porch  in  the  summer,  and  to  be  approached  through  a 
small  wash-room  at  the  side  in  the  winter.  The  veranda 
may  then  be  used  for  storing  a  small  supply  of  dry  wood 
under  cover.  In  the  wash-room  is  a  flight  of  ladder  steps 
leading  to  the  loft.  The  family  room  has  two  windows  in 
it,  and  is  connected  with  two  small  bedrooms  and  a  store¬ 
room,  each  supplied  with  one  small  window.  The  house 
Fig.  42.  Plan  of  Log  is  intended  to  be  constructed  in  the  ordinary  manner  with 
House.  rough  logs ;  but  as  much  neatness  as  is  compatible  with 


68 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


proper  economy  is  supposed  to  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  material  and 
in  the  execution  of  the  work.  In  clearing  up  the  forest  a  little  judicious  fore- 
thought  will  certainly  preserve  a  few  fine  specimens  of  the  primative  growth 
around  the  family  home  for  shade  and  enjoyment. 


Fig.  43.  Design  for  a  Saddle-back  Log  House. 

102.  Even  after  saw-mills  have  become  common,  where  the  lumber  must 
be  hauled  several  miles  over  bad  roads,  it  is  better  economy  to  use  these 
piimitive  materials  than  resort  to  boards,  for  little  or  no  reason,  except  that 
other  people  live  in  houses  constructed  of  sawed  lumber.  Our  architect,  Littell, 
has  given  us  an  enlarged  design  for  a  log  house,  with  rooms  for  the  accommoda¬ 
tion  of  a  good-sized  family.  Its  construction  is  that  of  a  block-house — that  is, 
the  timbers  are  hewn  or  squared,  and  laid  up  snugly  and  strongly  one  above  the 
other  with  great  care  and  neatness  The  size  and  arrangement  of  the  windows 
and  doors,  the  construction  of  the  roof  and  of  all  other  parts,  will  suggest  them¬ 
selves  to  the  workman  who  is  familiar  with  building  this  class  of  houses.  Useful 
hints  may  be  gleaned  from  the  general  directions  contained  in  1]  48,  on  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  log  school-house. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


69 


From  tlie  porch  A,  which  is  large  and  spacious,  communication  is  had  with 
all  the  rooms.  On  the  right  is  the  principal  living  room  B,  26  by  IS  feet, 
with  a  fireplace.  It  communicates  with  a  large  pantry  C,  9  by  18  feet,  and 
with  a  commodious  sitting-room  D,  15  by  16  feet.  On  the  left  we  have  two 
large  bed-rooms,  E,  IS  by  21,  and  F,  15  by  IS  feet.  The  arrangement  is 
quite  simple  and  subject  to  modifications  to  suit  the  taste  or  wants  of  occupants. 
For  instance,  the  pantry  might  be  divided,  forming  also  a  clothes  press  to  be 
furnished  with  shelves.  The  two  bed-rooms  on  the  left  would  not  suffer  by  sub¬ 
division  into  three  if  the  wants  of  the  family  required.  But  we  must  not  carry 
the  subdivision  too  far,  lest  we  shut  off'  the  light  or  air  from  some  of  the  apart¬ 
ments,  and  thus  entail  more  evils  than  we  gain  advantages. 

In  houses  like  these  some  of  our  most  active  and  energetic  men  have  been 
reared.  Their  careful  and  intelligent  parents  sent  them  into  the  world  with 
sound  constitutions,  good  morals,  and  a  fair  share  of  good  sense.  Their  edu¬ 
cation  was  begun  at  the  fireside,  or,  more  literally,  by  the  light  of  a  “fat  pine 
knot”  in  the  chimney  corner,  by  which  they  have  been  enabled  to  grasp  the 
ideas  of  the  age  and  to  make  themselves  useful,  working  members  of  a  great 
and  prosperous  people.  Men  who  now  hold  the  highest  positions  in  the  gift  of 
the  nation  first  learned  to  coutend  with  and  conquer  difficulties  while  living 
in  log  houses,  eveu  less  respectable  in  appearance  and  far  less  comfortable  than 
these  illustrations  show.  We  would  not  addle  any  young  man’s  brain  with 
the  thought  that  he  too  may  yet  be  congressman,  or  senator,  or  chief  justice, 
or  President,  though  he  might  have  been  born  in  a  log  cabin;  but  we  would  that 
every  one  might  strongly  feel  there  is  an  honorable  and  useful  place  for  him  in 
life,  that  the  want  for  good,  honest,  upright  men  was  never  greater,  and  that  any 
one  who  will  prepare  himself  well  to  fill  the  place  of  a  man,  and  go  to  work  with 
a  manly  judgment  and  persistence  to  fill  it,  may  rise  to  that  sphere  in  which  his 
talents  and  taste  will  find  full  and  satisfying  exercise. 

The  style  of  building  shown  in  the  perspective  elevation  is  well  adapted  to 
school-houses  requiring  two  rooms. 


103.  The  engraving- 
presents  a  perspective 
view  of  a  cottage  con¬ 
structed  after  the  style 
of  a  box  frame,  described 
in  1]  49.  The  roof  pro¬ 
jects  about  2  feet.  The 
windows  are  hooded  in 
the  plainest  manner. 
The  stoop,  6  by  4  feet, 
will  protect  the  front 
door  from  the  storms.  It 
is  broad  enough  for  a  seat 
on  either  side,  and  is  an 
inviting  place  for  father 

Fig.  45.  Design  for  a  Laborer’s  Cottage.*  an<^  family,  after  the 

day’s  duties  are  done. 

The  side  elevation  gives  a  view  of  the  lean-to  in  the  rear,  showing  a  contin¬ 
uous  roof,  one-quarter  pitch — that  is,  one  foot  perpendicular  rise  to  each  four  feet 


*  This  and  the  three  following  designs,  also  the  designs  for  rustic  gates,  are  from  the 
American  Agriculturist. 


70 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


across  the  building.  In  localities  where  there  is  a 
tendency  to  dampness,  the  elevation  should  be  increased 
to  one  foot  for  every  three.  If  the  roof  be  too  flat  it 
harbors  moss  and  sooner  decays.  The  space  in  the 
garret  is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  worthy  of  notice 
The  window  serves  to  ventilate  it.  No  one  should 
sleep  in  the  confined  air  of  such  a  close  place  as  it 
would  be  with  the  windows  shut  in  hot  weather.  Nor 
would  it  be  much  better  in  the  cooler  nights  unless  they 


Fig.  46.  End  elevation. 

To  make  the  second 
Of 


were  opened.  The  ceiling  of  first  story  is  ten  feet  high, 
story  habitable  the  walls  should  be  carried  up  four  feet  above  the  floor, 
course  a  full  height  is  preferable. 

The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  in  the  ground  plan  is  not  complete.  The  living 
room,  L  R,  is  14  by  14  feet ;  bed-room,  B  R.  8  by  8  feet.  Back  of  this  the  room 

C  is  8  feet  long,  with  a  passage  by  the  side  of  a 
stairway  of  3|  feet.  This  may  be  used  for  a 
closet.  The  lean-to,  marked  W  H  in  the  plan, 
is  26  by  8  feet.  It  may  be  divided  into  a  wash¬ 
room  on  the  right,  which  would  also  serve  for  a 
cook-room,  and  on  the  left  for  a  large  bed-room. 
We  have  then,  practically,  a  kitchen  and  bed¬ 
room  in  the  lean-to;  in  the  main  part  a  comforta¬ 
ble  living  room,  a  bed-room  and  closet,  or  clothes 
press,  with  shelves  and  hooks,  adapted  to  a  vari¬ 
ety  of  wants.  The  house,  though  small,  would 
not  cost  as  much  as  an  active  man  should  earn  in 
one  year,  yet  it  has  rooms  enough  for  a  small 
family  to  “begin  the  world  ”  in,  and,  if  their  dis- 


Fig.  47.  Ground  Plan. 


positions  be  right,  they  will  find  much  enjoyment  within  its  walls. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  our  new  house  is  not  quite  so  inviting  in  its  external 
appearance  as  it  will  be  after  a  few  years  have  passed.  The  ground  for  the 
garden  on  the  left  is  but  just  broken,  and  lies  in  ridges  as  the  plough  laid  the 
furrows.  That  will  be  the  vegetable  garden,  to  be  kept  clean  of  weeds.  The 
wife  will  plant  seeds  of  climbing  vines  by  the  windows ;  the  boys  will  set  the 
woodbine  or  clematis  by  the  stoop,  and  the  father  will  not  forget  a  trellis  for 
grapes,  a  border  for  flowers,  nor  omit  planting  such  trees  as  will  bear  fruit  needed 
by  the  family.  Others  more  purely  ornamental  may  be  allowed  their  share  of 
space  in  the  front  yard.  The  road  side  may  be  improved  by  setting  those  of  a 
wide-spreading  habit  of  growth,  or  such  as  will  stand  for  ages  towering  towards 


the  sky. 

There  are  thousands  of  families  living  on  the  broad  prairies  of  the  West, 
whose  pioneer  cabins  were  smaller  and  poorer  than  this.  When  they  erected 
them  not  a  sod  had  ever  been  broken  in  the  broad  green  fields  around  them 
They  were  honest,  industrious,  and  frugal  people.  They  were  hopeful,  too,  and 
courageous.  Generally  those  who  took  good  care  of  themselves  were  healthy. 
They  worked  hard  ;  others  came  and  settled  near  them.  They  established 
schools  and  built  churches.  Railroads  came  to  them.  The  outer  world  wanted 
all  they  could  produce,  and  paid  them  for  their  labors.  Now  many  of  these 
families  are  enjoying  comfort  and  even  wealth.  All  this  may  be  repeated  else¬ 
where.  Those  who  would  reap  the  blessings  must  make  the  start  with  a  right 
strong  determination  to  work  and  succeed. 

This  cottage  is  constructed  on  the  box-frame  plan.  Directions  for  building  are 
contained  in  49. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


71 


Bill  of  materials  and  work. 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches,  120  feet  long . 

Plates,  3  by  6  inches,  120  feet  long . 

Partitions,  3  by  4  inches,  140  feet  long . 

Floor  timbers,  22  pieces,  3  by  8  inches,  14  feet  long  . 

Rafters,  3  by  4  inches . 

Roof  boards . 

Siding,  surface  measure . 

Flooring,  surface  measure,  600,  (J  added,)  150 . 

Boards  for  finishing . 


Feet. 
480 
180 
140 
616 
360 
6f*0 
1,  750 
750 
1,  000 


Total 


5,  926 


Shingles .  6,  000 

Windows .  7 

Doors .  6 

Nails,  kegs .  6 

Brick,  (8  by  4  by  2  inches) .  350 

Carpenters'  work,  days .  60 

Masons’  work,  days .  5 


104.  In  this  design  the 
architect  has  favored  us  with 
a  neat  and  substantial  cottage. 
Its  external  appearance  Be¬ 
speaks  good  words  for  the 
dwellers  within.  The  gable 
over  the  centre  window  not 
only  gives  room  for  a  window 
in  the  attic  through  which 
light  and  air  find  admission, 
but  it  improves  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  building  by  break¬ 
ing  up  the  sameness  of  the 
long,  plain  roof.  Here  we 
Fig.  48.  Design  for  a  Neat  Cottage.  have  the  chimney  near  the 

centre,  but  the  builder  is  at 

liberty  to  exercise  his  preference  in  this  as  in  all  other  matters. 

The  living  room  or  sitting  room  L,  13 
by  17  feet,  serves  as  a  kitchen.  A  bed 
room  B,  10  by  12,  with  two  windows, 
opens  from  it.  Out  of  this  a  clothes-press 
C.  The  pantry  P,  5  by  7  feet,  is  eonve-  5 
nient  to  the  fireplace  stove.  C  C  is  a  fine 
large  closet  with  shelves  and  drawers.  ^ 

Opposite  is  a  back  entry  with  a  sink  S. 

A  small  window  directly  over  the  sink 
lights  it.  A  cellar  is  provided  for  in  the 
plan.  The  stairs  to  it  go  down  from  the 
back  entry  underneath  the  chamber  stairs. 

The  latter  ascend  from  the  hall  in  front 
and  may  be  shut  off  from  observation  by  a  close  partition  and  a  door,  or  nicely 
fitted  stair  rail. 


72 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


A  / 

B 

n 

— 

j  10X14 

— 

B 

11X13 

c 

C 

At  the  head  of  the  stairs 


we  have  a  long 


narrow  room,  rather  low,  opening  into  two 
bed-rooms  B  B,  10  by  11  and  10  by  14 
feet  respectively.  Each  of  these  have  a 
convenient  clothes-press  C  C.  Over  the 
front  hall  is  a  small  room  C,  almost  large 
enough  to  place  a  bed  in.  It  will  serve  as 
a  store-room  for  articles  that  may  not  be 
needed  for  a  time,  but  which  are  to  be 
carefully  laid  away  until  needed. 

In  a  small  dwelling  like  this  it  may  ap- 
at  first  glance,  a  waste  of  room  and  an  unnecessary  expense  to  have  a 
This  is  not  the  case.  The  reverse  is  true.  The  front 

There  is  no  reason  why  the 


Fig.  50.  Attic  Plan. 


pear 

front  and  back  entry. 

entry  is  for  neatness ;  the  other  for  constant  use. 
dirt  which  is  liable  to  be  tracked  in  should  deface  the  hall  through 
which  guests  would  pass.  The  wife  who  attends  to  her  own 
household  work  may,  and  should  have  quite  as  much  pride  as 
though  several  servants  were  at  her  bidding,  and  the  husband 
who  appreciates  the  weight  of  care  and  toil  which  bills  to  the  lot 
of  his  wife,  will  take  delight  in  arranging  his  house  with  especial 
regard  to  her  convenience  and  comfort. 

The  cut  shows  a  very  plain  style  of  hood  for  window.  It 
may  be  made  of  2  inch  plank.  A  jfiazza  along  the  whole  front 
would  be  a  great  improvement,  and  would  do  away  with  the  need  Fig..  5i.  a  Hooded 
of  the  hoods.  Window. 

The  bill  of  materials  for  this  cottage  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  for  the  next 
succeeding  design. 

105.  This  design  is  for  a 
small  family  in  moderate  cir¬ 
cumstances,  who  have  means 
to  live  in  a  comfortable  man¬ 
ner,  and  who  may  expend 
something  more  on  their  house 
at  the  outset. 

The  main  part  is  25  by  IS 
feet,  with  an  addition  at  the 
end  of  16  by  5  feet,  making’ 
the  ground  plan  about  30  by 
18  feet. 

The  principal  rooms  on  the 
first  floor  are  the  living  room 
P,  13  by  15  feet,  and  the 
kitchen  K,  10  by  13  feet. 
They  connect  with  each  other 

Fig.  52.  Design  for  a  Snug  Cottage.  and  the  front  entry,  which 

B  B  B  is  4  by  1 1  feet.  The  kitchen 

also  opens  into  the  side  entry  E,  5  by  5  feet.  Off  it  is  a  sink-room,  5  by  5  feet. 
This  opens  into  a  pantry  P,  5  by  4  feet,  fitted  up  with  shelves  on  three  sides. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


73 


so  -ft 


Fig\  53.  Ground  Plan. 


There  is  a  cellar  under  the  house.  It  is 
entered  by  a  stairway  out  of  the  front  hall, 
convenient  to  the  kitchen.  The  cellar 
stairs  are  underneath  those  by  which  we 
ascend  to  the  second  floor.  There  will 
need  be  a  turn  in  each  flight  of  stairs. 

Those  for  the  cellar  should  have  a  broad 
landing  making  them  easier  of  descent.  A 
closet  for  dishes,  0  C,  stands  by  the  side 
of  the  chimney.  It  opens  into  the  dining 
room  with  a  door,  and  connects  with  the 
kitchen  by  a  slide.  The  living  room  is 
made  much  more  cheerful  by  its  bay  window. 

It  is  formed  of  three  sash  set  in  framework 
and  covered  with  a  roof. 

The  small  room  in  the  corner,  L,  7  by  4  feet,  is  for  a  library.  It  should  be 
furnished  with  shelves  for  books,  a  cabinet  for  minerals,  shells,  and  other  curi¬ 
osities.  There  may  be  room  in  it  for  a  small  writing  table  or  secretary,  with 
drawers  for  writing  materials.  The  window  in  the  library  should  be  narrow, 
say  two  feet  wide ;  also  the  one  in  the  hall.  They  may  make  up  in  height  what 
they  lack  in  width.  In  some  situations  the  library  and  stairs  may  be  changed 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  house  and  the  porch  extended  along  the  front  of  the 
house,  as  represented  in  Fig.  59. 

We  may  seem  to  have  presumed  too  far  in  setting  apart  a  room  for  a  library. 
By  a  family  of  some  taste  and  culture  it  will  be  highly  prized.  This  is  the 
ultimate  end  to  which  we  look  forward  with  much  hope  for  all.  If  our  occu¬ 
pants  have  not  climbed  up  so  far  it  is  hoped  they  will  yet  seek  those  intellectual 
pursuits  which  tend  to  pass  them  gently  down  the  declivity  of  life. 

The  upper  story  has  two  bed-rooms,  each 
the  size  of  the  room  underneath  it.  Each 
is  lighted  by  a  window  in  the  end.  Both 
open  from  the  hall,  which  has  a  window  in 
it.  The  room  on  the  left  has  a  small  closet. 
That  on  the  right  enjoys  a  large  clothes- 
press,  directly  over  the  library. 

106.  The  conveniences  of  this  cottage 
are  not  a  few,  yet  substantial  advantage 
may  be  gained  by  raising  the  walls  higher 
than  are  represented  in  the  elevation.  It 
must  be  apparent  that  the  upper  ceilings 
would  be  low,  and  that  there  will  be  a  want 
of  light  and  air  in  the  sleeping  rooms.  Raise  the  second  story  to  the  height  of 
8  or  10  feet  and  gain  a  window  in  the  back  side  of  each  of  the  bed-rooms. 
How  much  more  airy  they  would  be  !  Or  raise  this  story  but  4  or  5  feet ;  pre¬ 
serve  the  neat  style  of  attic  windows  in  the  front.  Make  two  more  in  front  and 
two  more  in  rear. 

If  all  the  room  should  not  be  wanted  at  first,  or  if,  for  other  reasons,  the  extra 
expense  cannot  be  assumed,  let  the  design  be  started  with  reference  to  this  in¬ 
tention.  The  finishing  may  be  left  until  the  old  bills  for  the  house  are  all  paid 
and  something  is  in  purse  for  the  rest  of  the  work.  The  house,  finished  as  sug¬ 
gested,  would  be  worth  33  per  cent,  more  to  sell,  and  50  per  cent,  more  to  live  in. 


Fig.  54.  Second  story. 


74 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


This  design  is  intended  for  a  situation  on  the  north  side  of  a 
road  running  east  and  west ;  the  house  to  stand  end  to  the  road, 
bringing  the  kitchen  on  the  east  and  the  living  room  to  the  south 
and  east.  A  western  view  will  be  had  from  the  bay  window. 
If  placed  on  the  east  side  of  a  road  running  north  and  south,  the 
entrance  should  be  toward  the  road.  The  kitchen  and  living 
room  would  still  retain  their  southern  and  eastern  aspect.  In 
that  case  the  back  entry  and  pantry  should  be  changed  as  in  the 
annexed  cut. 


Fig.  55.  Rearrange¬ 
ment  of  rooms. 

Bill  of  materials  and  work. 

Frame,  2  by  6  inches,  92  feet  long  . . . 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches,  120  feet  long  . 

Partitions,  2  by  6  inches,  1,200  feet  long  . 

Plates,  2  by  6  inches,  106  feet  long . 

Girts,  1^  by  5  inches,  106  feet  long  . 

Floor  timbf  rs,  (32  pieces,)  3  by7  9  inches,  18  feet  long 

Rafters,  (15  pieces,)  3  by  6  inches,  13  feet  long . 

Bearing  beam,  (1  piece,)  4  by  S  inches,  30  feet  long  . 

Roof  bo  ards . 

Flooring,  surface  measure  . . 

Siding,  surface  measure . 

Boards,  for  finishing . . .  . 


Feet. 
92 
4S0 
1,  200 
106 
55 
1,  296 
292 
80 
900 
1,  000 
1,  400 
1,  000 


Total 


7,  900 


Shingles  . . 

Windows . 

Windows,  bay . 

Doors  . 

Nails,  kegs . 

Plastering,  yards . 

Brick,  (8  by  4  by  2  inches) 
Carpenters’  work,  days.  . . . 
Masons’  work,  days . 


7,  500 
9 
3 
15 
9 

400 
1,  000 
160 
50 


107.  We  have  here 
one  of  the  snuggest,  neat¬ 
est,  and  most  convenient 
of  cottages.  It  does  not 
stand  upon  the  desolate 
road-side,  a  monument  of 
ignorance  and  unthrift. 
A  nicely  graded  lawn 
surrounds  it.  Trees  are 
near  to  give  their  grate¬ 
ful  shade  and  break  the 
force  of  heavy  winds. 
The  rooms  connect  with 
each  other  in  such  a  man¬ 
ner  as  to  permi  t  a  draught 
of  air  to  pass  through 
from  almost  any7  direc¬ 
tion  when  it  is  needed. 
It  has  closets  and  con- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


75 


From  the  porch  G  we  enter  the  hall  H; 


jMl3 


Fig.  57.  Ground  Plan. 


veniences  for  the  housewife  in  plenty, 
thence  the  kitchen  or  living  room  K, 

12  by  14  feet.  A  window  looks  out  on 
the  porch.  This,  by  the  way,  might 
be  removed  a  few  feet  to  the  right  and 
a  door  substituted  in  its  stead.  The 
living  room  is  connected  with  the  parlor 
P,  a  snug  little  apartment,  12  by  12 
feet;  also  with  the  commodious  bed¬ 
room  B,  the  same  size  as  the  parlor. 

A  chimney  stands  between  the  two. 

The  bed-room  has  a  clothes  press  c. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  chimney  a  door 
might  be  placed  to  connect  the  two 
rooms.  But  many  people  prefer  to  build 
their  chimneys  out  of  doors.  On  re¬ 
moving  it  to  the  end  of  the  house  we  should  be  very  likely  to  sacrifice  the  clothes 
presses.  On  this  account,  if  no  other,  the  chimney  should  stand  where  represented 
in  the  engraving.  Outside  chimneys  cost  more  than  those  which  are  built  under 
cover,  because  they  take  more  brick  and  of  a  better  quality. 

The  kitchen  has  an  entry  E,  which  may  be  used  for  doing  the  rougher  work 

in.  A  sink  connects  with  the  entry. 
Here  the  men  may  wash  and  prepare  for 
their  meals.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  chimney  is  another  closet  F,  service¬ 
able  for  many  uses. 

The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  on 
the  second  floor  is  nearly  the  same  as 
below.  Each  has  its  clothes  press, 
and  by  a  proper  forethought  each  may 
have  a  fireplace  for  warming  or  venti¬ 
lating.  A  small  window  at  A,  over 
the  porch,  will  light  the  upper  hall. 
It  may  be  hung  with  hinges  to  open 
and  let  in  the  air. 


Bill  of  materials  and  work. 


Frame,  2  by  6  inches,  1,170  feet  long .  1,  170 

Sills,  6  by  S  inches,  1,140  feet  long .  4,  540 

Partitions,  3  by  4  inches,  1,200  feet  long .  {,  200 

Plates,  3  by  6  inches,  120  feet  long .  ISO 

Girders,  1J  by  5  inches,  120  feet  long .  62 

Floor  timbers,  (24  pieces,)  3  by  9  inches,  13  feet  long .  700 

Floor  timbers,  (40  pieces,)  3  by  9  inches,  20  feet  long .  1,  800 

Roof  boards .  900 

Flooring,  (surface  measure,)  1,200,  (i  added,)  300  .  1,  500 

Siding,  (surface  measure,)  1,600,  (^  added,!  400  .  2,  000 

Boards,  for  finishing .  4,  500 


15,  552 


Shingles. 

Windows 


8,  000 

11 


76 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Doors .  4 

Nails,  kegs .  10 

Plastering,  yards .  510 

Brick,  (8  by  4  by  2  inches) .  ] ,  500 

Carpenters’ work,  days .  160 

Masons’  work,  days . 60 


108.  The  accompanying  design  is  no  fancy  sketch.  It  is  the  home  of  a  mechanic 
who  by  diligent  attention  to  business  and  honest  industry  has  achieved  a  cornpe- 


Fig.  59,  A  thriving  mechanic’s  Home.*  (Size,  30  by  20  feet;  two  stories  with  attic.) 

tence.  The  house  is  approached  by  a  veranda-porch.  The  principal  floor  is  occupied 
by  an  airy  parlor  fit ;  ed  up  with  recessed  book-cases  in  the  walls  at  the  sides  of 
the  fireplace.  In  rear  is  a  small  living  or  dining  room.  Adjacent  is  the  kitchen 
communicating  with  the  back  porch,  in  which  is  a  sink.  The  chimney  stack  is 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  the  better  to  accommodate  all  the  rooms 
with  fireplaces  and  insure  ventilation.  In  the  summer  the  kitchen  work  may 
be  performed  in  a  back  kitchen  detached  from  the  dwelling. 


Fig.  60.  Plan  of  principal  floor.  Fig.  6!.  Plan  of  chambers. 

The  arrangement  of  the  chambers  is  plainly  shown  in  the  cut.  Three  bed¬ 
rooms,  a  large  linen  closet,  and  two  smaller  clothes  presses  complete  the  accom¬ 
modations  for  a  family  of  moderate  size  to  live  in  a  very  comfortable,  genteel 

*  Figs.  59  to  71,  inclusive,  are  from  Yaux’s  Villas  and  Cottages. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


77 


way.  A  gable  is  introduced  at  the  side  to  give  headway  for  stairs  to  the  attic 
should  the  wants  of  the  family  demand  an  occasional  extra  room  or  two. 

109.  In  fitting  up  the  parlor  of  such  a  cottage  as  this,  remarks  Mr.  Yaux,  the 
architect,  good  taste  would  indicate  that  the  carpet  should  be  of  small  pattern 
and  quiet  in  color,  so  as  to  give  an  air  of  repose  to  the  whole  room.  The  wood¬ 
work  might  be  either  stained  and  varnished,  or  painted  in  light,  cheerful  tints. 
The  walls  should  be  covered  with  a  pretty,  fanciful  paper,  harmonizing  with 
the  wood-work,  and  not  in  large  pattern,  lest  it  appear  to  decrease  the  size  of 
the  apartment.  The  mantel-piece  may  be  of  wood,  of  some  tasteful  design,  cor¬ 
responding  with  the  rest  of  the  room,  and  yet  look  far  better  than  a  cold,  costly 
white  marble  affair,  that  will  run  away  with  much  money  to  no  purpose.  The 
centre  table  should  be  a  serviceable,  substantial  piece  of  furniture,  at  which  three 
or  four  people  will  be  able  to  sit  and  read  comfortably.  A  well-made  chintz- 
colored  lounge,  although  a  much  more  economical  and  far  more  comfortable 
piece  of  furniture  than  a  common  rosewood  sofa,  will  be  found  to  have  an  equally 
agreeable  effect  in  the  room.  Two  or  three  tables  of  fanciful  design  and  trifling 
expense,  that  can  be  moved  wherever  they  may  be  wanted  at  a  moment’s  notice, 
will  give  life  and  animation  to  such  a  parlor.  An  easy  chair  or  two  for  tired 
visitors  (besides  the  regular  half  dozen)  will  be  found  very  acceptable.  Some 
pretty,  simple  engravings  on  the  wall  in  neat  frames,  and  an  oil  painting  or  two, 
can  be  obtained  at  a  very  moderate  cost.  Pretty  casts  for  the  mantel-piece,  or 
to  be  placed  on  brackets  here  and  there  on  the  walls,  may  be  obtained  for  a 
mere  trifle.  A  bird  cage,  a  basin  of  gold  fish,  or  a  hanging  basket  of  flowers,  if 
there  are  any  young  girls  in  the  family,  will  also  help  to  give  an  air  of  vitality 
to  the  whole  room,  which  should  be  the  central  point  of  attraction  for  all  the  in¬ 
mates.  It  is  possible,  however,  if  we  lay  too  much  stress  on  these  minor  accesso¬ 
ries,  that  some  Mr.  Blank  may  say  :  “  This  will  never  do.  We  can’t  have  our 
girls  fussing  with  flowers  and  birds  and  gold  fish.  They  have  their  duties  to 
perform  and  their  studies  to  attend  to.”  We  will,  therefore,  stop  here,  ventur¬ 
ing  merely  to  remark,  with  all  due  deference,  that  although  duties  must,  of 
course,  be  performed,  yet  innocent  pleasures  ought  also  to  be  encouraged,  and  that 
no  study  will  insure  so  rich  a  reward  to  all  concerned  as  the  study  of  simple, 
quiet,  domestic  grace  and  elegance. 

110.  The  Color  of  Cottages  and  School-houses  has  much  influence  on 
their  general  effect.  Every  rural  building,  says  the  accomplished  writer  and 
architect  just  quoted,  requires  four  tints  to  make  it  a  pleasant  object  in  the  way 
of  color.  This  variety  costs  but  little  more  than  a  monotonous  repetition,  while 
it  adds  much  to  the  completeness  of  the  effect.  They  should  be  often  cheerful 
and  light,  sometimes  neutral,  seldom  dark,  and  never  black  or  white.  There  is, 
fortunately,  no  end  to  the  tints  that  may  be  used.  The  main  walls  should  be 
of  some  agreeable  shade  or  color  ;  the  roof  trimmings,  verandas,  and  other  wood¬ 
work,  being  either  of  a  different  color  or  a  different  shade  of  the  same  color,  so 
that  a  contrast,  though  not  a  harsh  one,  be  established.  The  third  color,  though 
not  widely  different  from  the  other  wood-work,  should  be  applied  to  (lie  solid 
parts  of  the  Venetian  blinds.  The  movable  slats  should  be  painted  the  fourth 
tint.  This  last  should  be  far  the  darkest  used  on  the  premises,  for  the  effect  of 
a  glass  window  or  opening  in  a  wall  is  always  dark  when  seen  from  a  distance. 
If  this  natural  fact  is  not  remembered,  and  the  shutters  are  painted  the  same 
color  as  the  rest  of  the  house,  a  blank,  uninteresting  effect  will  be  produced,  for 
when  the  blinds  are  closed  the  house  will  appear  to  a  person  at  a  little  distance 
to  be  without  windows  at  all. 

111.  Concrete  or  Gravel  Walls  are  of  very  ancient  date  in  some  parts  of 
Europe.  When  well  laid  they  are  very  enduring.  They  are  better  adapted  to 
mild  than  cold  climates.  The  Frenc  h  Hu  guenots  introduced  the  art  into  this 
country.  Some  of  the  buildings  which  they  erected  remained  habitable  for  a 
century  and  a  half.  Blocks  of  concrete,  of  which  they  formed  forts  along  the 


78 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


southern  coast,  are  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  It  is  wise  to  secure  the 
services  of  the  most  skilful  workmen  in  undertaking  any  job  with  which  you 
are  not  acquainted.  This  the  builder  of  a  concrete  house  should  be. 

The  materials  requisite  are  sharp,  clean,  sand  and  gravel,  free  from  dirt,  a  por¬ 
tion  of  small  stones  and  freshly  burnt  lime.  The  lime  may  be  coarse;  it  must  be 
strong.  Oyster-shell  lime  answers  well.  But  no  lime  that  has  been  exposed  to 
the  air  and  become  slaked  is  fit  to  use. 

The  foundation  must  be  dry.  If  not  naturally  so,  under-draining  must  be  had. 
Where  flat  stones  can  be  obtained  it  is  well  to  lay  a  course  in  the  bottom  of  the 
trench  below  the  reach  of  frost.  Where  frost  is  not  troublesome  it  is  only  neces¬ 
sary  to  go  down  to  the  compact  solid  earth  for  commencing  the  foundation. 
Hydraulic  concrete  is  sometimes  used  to  commence  with  until  the  walls  are 
carried  up  a  few  feet. 

There  is  not  much  difficulty  in  carrying  up  the  sides.  All  the  trouble  will 
be  at  the  corners.  Hard-burnt  brick  or  square  blocks  of  stone  may  be  used  for 
these  and  at  the  openings  for  doors  and  windows. 

There  are  two  methods  of  constructing  the  walls.  One  is  to  form  blocks  of 
concrete  in  moulds ;  set  them  up  to  dry  and  harden,  then  lay  them  in  the  wall 
as  you  would  blocks  of  stone.  Another  and  more  rapid  way  is  to  build  a  curb¬ 
ing  on  either  side  of  the  wall,  lay  the  concrete  in  this  and  raise,  the  curbing  as 
the  work  progresses.  The  exercise  of  ordinary  care  will  keep  the  walls  plumb 
and  true.  The  width  of  the  moulds  must  be  the  same  as  the  thickness  of  the 
wall.  Each  block  may  be  a  foot  high  and  three  feet  long,  or  varied  to  suit  the 
openings  for  doors  and  windows. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  give  specific  directions  as  to  tlie  quantities  of  the  ma¬ 
terials  used.  The  mechanic,  if  he  understands  his  business,  will  regulate  that 
matter.  With  a  proper  admixture  of  sand,  gravel,  aud  samll  stones  the  amount 
of  lime  required  will  be  just  what  is  sufficient  to  form  a  perfect  coating  for  every 
particle  of  sand,  pebble,  and  stone.  Any  considerable  excess  weakens  the  work. 


Fig.  6.3.  Stone  window 
hood. 


112.  This  design  for  a  gardener’s  cottage  is  in¬ 
tended  for  rubble  work  or  stones  as  they  come  from 
the  quarry,  without  dressing.  It  is  also  well  adapted 
for  gravel  work.  The  engraving  sufficiently  explains 
the  arrangement  and  use  of  the  rooms.  It  will,  per¬ 
haps,  occur  to  the  builder  that  a  window  on  the 
right  of  the  front  hall  in  the  ground  plan  might 
be  preferred  in  some  cases  to  the  closet,  since 
there  is  a  liberal  provision  of  them  elsewhere. 

The  cut,  Fig.  63,  illustrates  on  an  enlarged  scale 
a  style  of  stone  hood  for  a  window  adapted  to 
this  class  of  work.  When,  after  a  year  or  two, 
the  attentive  hand  has  trained  climbing  vines  to 
run  upon  the  walls,  this  cottage  will  stand  as 
one  of  the  most  winsome  houses  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES 


79 


113.  Gables,  verge  boards,  hoods,  &c„  of  rural  dwellings  admit  of  an  almost 
endless  variety  of  designs.  The  elevation  ot  the  roof,  its  interruption  by  peaks, 


No.  1.  finial.  No.  2. 


dormers,  &c.,  give  character  and  expression,  as  the  organs  of  the  face  affect  the 
countenance  of  a  man.  The  hipped  gable  is  in  common  use  on  the  more  recent 
houses  for  the  wealthy,  and  also  for  the  occupancy  of  laborers  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  our  large  cities.  Its  effect  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary  plain  gable,  with  its  nicely  wrought  verge  board.  A  neat  verge  board  is 
an  ornament ;  but  too  much  of  what  is  called  filigree  work  is  not  in  good  taste. 
The  designs  are  suggestive,  and  are  subject  to  modification. 

The  high-peaked  gable  is  still  another  desirable  style  where  economy  is  less 
an  object.  The  finials,  or  ornaments  standing  upon  the  peak  in  these  designs, 
have  also  their  own  effect  in  modifying  the  general  expression.  The  roofs  of 
cottages  last  longer  for  being  stepp.  Good  heart  pine  or  cypress  shingles  make 
the  best  covering  for  the  roof. 


Fig.  69.  Hooded  door.  Fig.  70.  Hooded  window. 


There  is  no  beauty  in  a  simple  hood  of  itself  as  shown  in  either  of  the  illus¬ 
trations  ;  but  it  is  on  such  devices  the  architect  relies  in  part  to  lift  our  cot¬ 
tages  out  of  their  close  resemblance  to  stables  or  other  outbuildings.  The  hooded 
door  is  coming  into  very  general  use.  Indeed,  it  is  an  old  style  of  ornamenta¬ 
tion  for  plain  houses,  entirely  in  keeping  wi  h  the  humblest.  It  is  now  employed 
in  some  of  the  finest  country  residences  on  an  er.lrp-go^  scale.  The  hood,  instead 


80 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


Fig.  71.  Plau  of  grounds. — Designed  by  Yaux. 


of  being  but  a  foot  or  two  wide,  may  be  extended  to  three,  five,  or  more  feet, 
and,  if  you  please,  carried  up  in  a  peak  with  a  roof  jutting  to  each  side.  The 
timbers  should  be  framed  into  the  house,  and  supported  at  the  outer  ends  by 
graceful  brackets  reaching  down  upon  the  side  of  the  door  posts.  Underneath 
is  the  seat  for  the  hour  of  rest  and  social  chat.  How  inviting  are  such  features. 
They  seem  to  hold  out  the  hand  to  the  man  of  taste  and  bid  him  welcome.  Set 
evergreens  near  them,  train  the  ivy  over  them,  and  there  let  them  stand  to  grace 
the  humble  entrance  all  the  winter  long.  If  you  do  these  things  your  cottage 
will  seem  a  palace,  and  never  again  be  a  bald,  naked  shelter  only. 

114. 


On  a  given  lot 
the  position  of  the  dwell¬ 
ing  is  often  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  the  view  to  be 
obtained,  the  shelter  to 
be  secured,  or  disagreea¬ 
ble  and  offensive  objects 
to  be  avoided — as  frog 
ponds,  marshes,  and  the 
like.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  have  the  plat  cut  up 
with  numerous  gravel 
walks  into  small  divi¬ 
sions.  A  few  walks  lead¬ 
ing  to  the  different  parts  of  the  grounds  with  a  specific  object  to  be  gained  in 
following  them,  is  all  that  is  required.  In  the  plan  above  shown  these  inten¬ 
tions  are  most  admirably  executed.  The  bouse  stands  a  little  on  one  side  of  the 
centre  at  the  front,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  gentle  slope  of  the  ground  in  every 
direction  from  that  spot.  At  the  right  is  a  flower  bed,  and  in  rear  of  this  are 
clumps  of  trees  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  lawn.  The  kitchen  garden  occupies 
a  liberal  area  near  by,  sloping  to  the  south  and  east  to  receive  the  morning  sun. 

It  is  not  expected  that  those  for  whom  these  hints  are  intended  will  be  able 
at  once  to  lay  out  their  grounds  on  the  costly  and  extensive  scale  which  the 
plan  calls  for,  but  correct  taste  can  better  be  formed  by  good  models  to  guide 
the  eye  than  by  many  elaborate  directions.  Having  fixed  on  his  plan,  the  owner 
may  do  what,  he  can  the  first  year,  more  the  next,  and  so  on  until  he  has  a  very 
complete  and  tasteful  arrange  ment  of  his  grounds. 

115.  Hedges — It  is  a  troublesome  thing  for  a  poor  man  to  be  compelled  to 
renew  bis  fences  every  two  years;  and  there  is  really  no  need  of  it.  We  would 
have  him  try  a  hedge.  It  will  require  several  years  to  complete  it;  but  when 
completed  will  last  longer  than  the  builder  of  it.  But  it  takes  forethought  and 
perseverance.  These  two  elements  are  the  chief  stock  in  trade  for  a  poor  man 
to  invest  in  who  wants  to  work  his  way  up  to  competence.  Without  them  the 
rich  run  down  to  the  heels  and  vacate  their  mansions  in  favor  of  more  industrious, 
prudent,  thoughtful  men. 

An  evergreen  hedge  is  a  perpetual  delight.  It  forms  a  green  wall  in  winter, 
and  is  no  less  beautiful  in  spring  and  at  autumn.  Arbor  vitae  is  the  most  com¬ 
mon  evergreen  used.  Why  would  not  the  holly  grow  well  in  long  continuous 
lines,  or  several  other  varieties  of  evergreens?  Young  evergreens  may  be 
brought  from  the  borders  of  the  forest,  not  from  its  thick  shade ;  these  die  on 
coming  to  the  full  blaze  of  the  sun.  Set  them  in  double  rows,  six  inches  apart. 
Mulch  and  water  them  ;  trim  them  thoroughly  if  the  roots  are  injured.  Wrap 
straw  around  them  to  prevent  them  from  drying  up.  After  they  get  started  they 
will  need  trimming  into  form. 

In  tropical  climates  not  a  few  of  the  broad-leaved  plants  make  magnificent 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


81 


hedges;  but  for  common  purposes,  as  for  turning  stock,  some  thorny  plant  is 
needed.  The  cheapest,  and  as  yet  the  most  reliable  hedge  plant,  is  the  osage 
orange,  a  native  of  Texas.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  will  make  a  hedge  in  four 
years.  A  single  row  of  plants  is  set,  plants  one  year  from  the  seed,  about  four 
inches  asunder  in  the  row.  After  one  year  they  are  cut  down  close  to  the 
ground.  Numerous  shoots  spring  up  from  the  stump.  The  second  year  these 
are  cut  down  to  six  inches;  the  third  year  to  one  foot.  After  that  they  are  let 
to  grow  up  to  four  or  six  feet,  according  to  the  object  to  be  gained.  One  hint  is 
never  to  be  forgotten  in  this  branch  of  work.  Keep  the  hedge  broad  next  the 
ground.  If  you  fail  in  this  at  the  start,  hoping  to  get  a  fence  sooner  by  letting 
the  plants  run  up,  the  error  is  fatal  ;  no  amount  of  tinkering  will  mend  the  de¬ 
fect.  If  kept  trimmed  closely  at  the  top  the  base  naturally  broadens.  Then 
let  the  upper  branches  come  on  and  take  their  place,  but  never  to  extend  out  so 
far  as  the  lower  ones.  Plants  must  have  light.  Leaves  will  not  grow  in  the 
dense  shade  of  a  hedge.  Large  trees  along  the  line  of  a  hedge  injure  their  sym¬ 
metry  of  growth.  Damp  grounds  are  bad.  The  osage  will  not  flourish  in  either 
situation  ;  shade  or  “  damp  feet  ”  kill  it.  The  breadth  of  a  hedge  at  its  base  should 
be  four  to  five  feet  It  may  taper  at  the  top  to  12  or  18  inches. 

While  the  plants  are  young  they  require  cultivation  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 
If  the  climate  he  hot  and  arid,  it  will  be  necessary  to  mulch  them ;  that  is,  to 
cover  the  row  on  either  side  with  a  coat  of  straw  or  saw-dust  to  prevent  moisture 
from  evaporating,  and  thus  drying  up  the  young  roots.  After  the  plants  have 
become  well  established  the  roots  run  down  deep  into  the  ground.  The  branches 
will  give  a  shade,  and  they  will  sustain  themselves  as  well  as  other  trees.  The 
time  may  come  when  our  broad  acres  will  be  too  closely  hemmed  in  by  dense 
population  to  give  so  much  space  as  hedges  require;  but  that  is  a  question  for 
generations  to  come,  about  which  we  need  borrow  no  trouble. 

116.  In  connection  with  hedges 
the  subject  of  rustic  gates  invites 
attention.  They  belong  to  that  class 
of  plain,  yet,  in  some  way,  elegant 
things,  which  a  man  who  can  handle 
an  axe,  chisel,  mallet,  and  saw  can 
make  at  odd  times — rainy  days  and 
dull  seasons,  when  others  loiter  at 
Fig.  72.  Rustic  Gate,  No.  1.  the  grocery,  wasting  time,  money, 

health,  and  good  name,  all  for  want 

of  a  little  resolution  to  be  men  among  men. 


To  make  them,  select  cedar 
poles  for  the  materials.  Trim  off 
the  small  branches  without  inter¬ 
fering  with  the  bark  on  the  parts 
to  he  used.  The  poles  need  not 
he  over  three  to  five  inches  in 
diameter.  Mortise  the  uprights 
and  tenon  the  rails  ;  fit  the  cross¬ 
pieces  to  their  places  by  halving  out  the  points  of  intersection  with  the  rails,  so 
they  will  lie  closely.  Bolt  all  the  joints  firmly.  Countersink  for  the  nuts  and 
heads.  The  upper  end  of  the  posts  or  uprights  should  be  shaved  or  rounded 
and  painted  with  shellac  to  shed  the  rain  and  prevent  the  heat  from  checking 
them. 

There  are  a  dozen  different  forms  for  these  gates.  In  all  the  idea  is  prominent 
that  the  cross-pieces  must  serve  as  braces  to  keep  the  gate  from  sagging. 


6  s  c 


82 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


This  novel  and  pretty 
design  may  be  easily 
constructed  by  any  man 
who  is  handy  with  tools. 
The  cut  represents  one 
for  wagons.  It  is  quite 
as  unique  on  a  smaller 
scale  for  the  front  gate 
leading  to  the  house,  and 
of  course  would  not  be 
quite  so  formidable  an 
affair  to  attempt  to  con¬ 
struct.  There  are  two 
high  posts  at  each  end. 
planted  about  two  feet 
asunder.  A  cross-piece 
is  fastened  to  the  top  of 
these.  It  is  supported 
at  each  end  by  the  braces 
bolted  on  to  the  posts. 
Plates,  if  they  may  be  so  designated,  rest  on  the  cross-pieces.  This  is  the 
foundation  for  the  roof.  It  may  be  made  of  narrow  boards  or  smaller  cedar 
poles  laid  close  together  or  thatched.  The  thatch  will  be.  laid  on  and  secured 
in  the  usual  manner.  Shorter  posts  may  be  set  between  the  tall  uprights  for 
the  gate,  so  that  it  will  hang  in  the  centre.  They  may  be  fastened  to  them  so 
that  they  will  not  move  from  their  places  by  the  weight  of  the  gate.  Gates  of 
this  style,  well  made  and  firmly  bolted,  will  last  many  years  without  repairs. 

117.  Rustic  work  is  adapted  to  many  useful  and  beautiful  devices  around  the 
home.  It  may  constitute  the  frame-work  of  a  porch,  which  an  ingenious  laborer 
can  build  with  his  own  hands,  large  enough  for  the  comfort  of  all  his  family. 
A  screen  or  a  trellis,  the  well-curb,  an  arbor,  or  a  shaded  seat  may  be  constructed 
of  boughs  with  bark  on,  naturally  arched  in  the  desired  forms.  Quite  a  variety 
of  wood  is  fitted  for  this  work.  Besides  red  cedar,  the  white  ash,  after  it  has 
grown  rough-barked,  is  very  excellent  and  long  lasting.  The  sassafras  at  a 
dozen  years  old  matures  into  roughness  of  bark,  and  the  bark  sticks  tightly  to 
the  wood,  and  the  wood  lasts  long  exposed  to  the  weather.  Slow  growing  trees 
hold  their  bark  best.  They  should  be  cut  late  in  the  fall,  when  they  have  got 
ready  to  stand  a  long  contest  with  winter  The  bark  hugs  closest  to  them  then. 
The  bark  of  the  oak  and  pine  soon  cleaves  off  and  leaves  the  sap-wood  bare. 
Those  varieties  of  wood  produce  the  best  effect  which  have  the  habit  of  cracking 
the  bark  finely  with  age.  Precautions  are  necessary  to  keep  out  insects  from 
working  in  the  sap-wood.  A  coat  of  petroleum  will  do  that,  and  an  application 
or  two,  annually,  of  shellac  varnish  (gum  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol)  will  form 
a  covering  which  will  resist  the  attacks  of  the  rain  and  prev  ent  the  exposed 
ends  of  the  sticks  from  cracking,  as  before  stated.  Such  simple  decorations  are 
neither  meaningless  nor  expensive.  To  an  intelligent  observer  they  are  very 
expressive.  They  speak  of  culture  and  refinement  within,  a  fondness  for  some¬ 
thing  more  than  the  barest  supply  of  our  animal  wants,  yet  none  the  less  regard 
do  they  indicate  for  life’s  common  affairs  The  man  of  taste  does  not  look  for 
cultivation  in  a  hovel  nor  for  refinement  in  a  barrack.  Even  the  “  child  of  pen¬ 
ury  by  instinct  shuns  the  poor.”  The  yard,  the  gate,  the  walk,  and  the  grounds, 
as  well  as  the  house,  all  tell  him  something  of  the  kind  of  people  he  may  expect 
to  find  witl  in.  The  culture  of  refined  sentiments  and  the  daily  practice  of  the 
amenities  of  life  lead  to  higher  conceptions  of  its  aims  and  possibilities,  while 
to  live  like  brutes  makes  brutes  of  men. 


Fiff.  74.  Hooded  Rustic  Gate. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  COTTAGES. 


83 


Useful  hints  applicable  to  cottages  and  those  who  live  in  them  are  contained 
in  the  former  portion  of  this  work,  especially  the  articles  on  ventilation,  warming, 
and  lighting. 

To  be  happy,  the  poor  man  and  woman,  as  well  as  the  wealthy,  must  have  an 
honorable  object  in  view,  to  accomplish  which  they  press  onward  with  a  hearty 
good  will.  Active  occupation  through  the  day  sharpens  the  appetite  and  com¬ 
poses  the  body  for  rest  at  night.  It  turns  the  thoughts  away  from  griefs  that 
corrode.  It  keeps  the  system  in  health  and  preserves  the  mind  in  peace.  Add 
to  industry  economy,  and  to  economy  purity  of  life — that  family  will  prosper 
which  possesses  these.  Respect,  esteem,  honor,  and  competence  will  surely  be 
theirs. 


' 


I 


\ 


